Unit 1: Introduction

Introduction
• A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based system that facilitates the
phases of data entry, data analysis and data presentation especially in cases when we
are dealing with geo-referenced data.
• A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based mapping tool that
enables geographic or spatial data capture, storage, retrieval, manipulation, analysis,
modelling and presentation of the real world scenario.
GIS is a tool box
• "a powerful set of tools for storing and retrieving at will, transforming and displaying
spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes".
• "automated systems for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis, and display of spatial
data."
GIS is an information system
• "An information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or
geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific
capabilities for spatially referenced data, as well as a set of operations for working
with the data".
• "A geographic information system is a special case of information systems where the
database consists of observations on spatially distributed features, activities or
events, which are definable in space as points, lines, or areas. A geographic
information system manipulates data about these points, lines, and areas to retrieve
data for ad hoc queries and analyses".
GIS is a science
• "the generic issues that surround the use of GIS technology, impede its
successful implementation, or emerge from an understanding of its potential
capabilities."
GIS is a multi billion Dollar Business
• “The growth of GIS has been a marketing phenomenon of amazing breadth and
depth and will remain so for many years to come. Clearly, GIS will integrate its
way into our everyday life to such an extent that it will soon be impossible to
imagine how we functioned before”
GIS is a System of computer software, hardware and data, and personnel to help
manipulate, analyzes and presents information that is tied to a spatial location:
– spatial location – usually a geographic location
– information – visualization of analysis of data
– system - linking software, hardware, data
– personnel – a thinking explorer who is key to the power of GIS
Types of GIS
• There are a number of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) (or GIS
software) available today.
• They range from high-powered analytical software to visual web applications,
and each of those are used for a different purpose.
• These can be categorized into 3 main groups of GIS:
– Web-based GIS
– Geobrowser
– Desktop GIS
Web-based GIS
• Web-based GIS, or WebGIS, are online GIS applications which in most cases are
excellent data visualisation tools.
• Their functionality is limited compared to software stored on your computer,
but they are user-friendly and particularly useful as they not required data
download.
• There are different map servers and mapping client application that can be
used while developing WebGIS applications.
Web map servers
• GeoServer:
Written in Java and relies on GeoTools. Allows users to share and edit geospatial
data.
• MapGuide Open Source:
Runs on Linux or Windows, supports Apache and IIS web servers, and has APIs
(PHP,.NET, Java, and JavaScript) for application development.
• Mapnik:
C++/Python library for rendering - used by OpenStreetMap.
• MapServer:
Written in C. Developed by the University of Minnesota.
Software development frameworks and libraries
GeoBase (Telogis GIS software):
• Geospatial mapping software available as a Software development kit.
• Suited for high transaction enterprise environments.
Geomajas:
• Open source development software for web-based and cloud based GIS
applications.
MapFish:
• Aggregates the power of OpenLayers, ExtJS and GeoExt.
OpenLayers:
• Open source AJAX library for accessing geographic data layers of all kinds,
originally developed and sponsored by MetaCarta.
Leafletjs:
• Open-Source JavaScript Library for Mobile-Friendly Interactive Maps.
Geobrowser
A Geobrowser is better explained with reference to a Web-browser.
• In short, a geobrowser can be understood as an Internet Explorer for
geographic information.
• Like the internet it allows the combination of many types of geographic data
from many different sources.
• The biggest difference between the World Wide Web and the geographic web
however is that everything within the latter is spatially referenced.
• Google Earth is the most popular geobrowser available.
Desktop GIS
• A GIS, or GIS software, allows you to interactively work with spatial data.
• A desktop GIS is a mapping software that needs to be installed onto and runs
on a personal computer.
• ArcGIS is what ESRI refer to as a suite of products which can be tailored to your
need.
• ArcGIS is used for a vast range of activities, covering both commercial and
educational uses.
How GIS Works?
A simple five-step process lets you apply GIS to any business or organizational
problem that requires a geographic decision. The steps are as follows:
• Ask
• Acquire
• Examine
• Analyze
• Act
Ask
• What is the problem you are trying to solve or analyze, and where is it located?
• Framing the question will help you decide what to analyze and how to present
the results to your audience.
Acquire
• Next you need to find the data needed to complete your project.
• The type of data and the geographic scope of your project will help direct your
methods of collecting data and conducting the analysis.
Examine
• You will only know for certain that your data is appropriate for study after
thoroughly examining it.
• This includes how the data is organized, how accurate it is, and where the data
came from?
Analyze
• Geographic analysis is the core strength of GIS.
• Depending on your project, there are many different analysis methods to
choose from.
• GIS modeling tools make it relatively easy to make these changes and create
new output.
Act
• The results of your analysis can be shared through reports, maps, tables, and
charts and delivered in printed format or digitally over a network or on the
web.
• You need to decide on the best means for presenting your analysis, and GIS
makes it easy to tailor the results for different audiences.
SCOPE AND APPLICATION AREAS OF GIS
• GIS technology can be used for scientific investigations, resource management,
asset management, archaeology, environmental impact assessment, urban
planning, cartography, criminology, geographic history, marketing, logistics,
Prospectivity Mapping, and other purposes.
• For example, GIS might allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency
response times in the event of a natural disaster, GIS might be used to find
wetlands that need protection from pollution, or GIS can be used by a company
to site a new business location to take advantage of a previously under-served
market.
• Uses of GIS range from indigenous people, communities, research institutions,
environmental scientists, health organizations, land use planners, businesses,
and government agencies at all levels.
• Uses range from information storage; spatial pattern identification; visual
presentation of spatial relationships; remote sensing - all sometimes made
available through internet web interfaces, involving large numbers of users,
data collectors, specialists and/or community participants.
• One of the primary services provided by a GIS project is the geo-referencing of
various data layers for mapping projection, involving the use of satellite image
data for GIS mapping including:

Mineral Mapping
Satellite Imagery and aerial photography have proven to be important tools in
support of mineral exploration projects. They can be used in a variety of ways.
Firstly they provide geologists and field crews the location of tracks, roads, fences
and inhabited areas. This is important for mapping out potential access corridors
for exploration areas and considering the environmental impact of large project.
These images are also useful for mapping outcrops and regolith systematics and
vegetation cover across exploration blocks and over regional areas.
Pipeline Corridor Mapping
Improve Safety and Security for Pipeline and Transmission Surveys: Satellite
imagery and GIS data have significant potential to reduce a number of safety and
security issues for pipeline corridor planning as well as supply managers with
solutions through spatial representation of data for land, lease management,
exploration, production, transmissions, environmental, financial and facilities
management. This information is required to make decisions that will significantly
impact the operator's ability to provide the services demanded by their customers.
Defence Mapping
Defence and Security
Satellite imagery and GIS maximizes security programs which can enable local
governments to better assess and understand how to develop programs to save
lives, protect property and enhance the future economic stability of their
communities. The current threats to a country range from incidents of terrorism
and information attacks on critical infrastructure to the potential use of weapons
of mass destruction and the spread of infectious diseases. Each one of these
threats could cause massive casualties and disruption to a country.
Airport Mapping
Airport Mapping Database
Satellite Imaging Corporation (SIC) provides 3D airport mapping using high
resolution stereo satellite imagery to support airport pre-planning and design,
airport layout plans (ALPs), navigational mapping, and airport security and aviation
safety operations. 3D Digital Surface Models (DSM's) and Digital Terrain Models
(DTM's) can be created to support airport and aviation operations to provide
details and data for the construction of airport runways, airport terminals, airport
layout design, airspace analysis, obstruction surveys, facility mapping, taxiways,
aprons/parking areas, 3D flight simulation for pilot training, aircraft operations,
and GIS database development.
Land Cover Classification
Satellite Imagery and GIS for Land Cover and Change Detection
Satellite imagery and GIS maps for land cover, land use and its changes is a key to
many diverse applications such as environment, forestry, hydrology, agriculture
and geology. Natural Resource Management, Planning and Monitoring programs
depend on accurate information about the land cover in a region. Methods for
monitoring vegetation change range from intensive field sampling with plot
inventories to extensive analysis of remotely sensed data which has proven to be
more cost effective for large regions, small site assessment and analysis.
Evaluation of the static attributes of land cover (types, amount, and arrangement)
and the dynamic attributes (types and rates of change) on satellite image data may
allow the types of change to be regionalized and the approximate sources of
change to be identified or inferred.
Urban Development
• Satellite imagery for urban and land development can be used to gather
strategic planning information pertaining to a district or an entire city. High
resolution satellite imagery and LiDAR incorporated into a GIS (Geographic
Information Systems) and CAD (Computer Aided Drafting) has gained popularity
among Planners, Developers and Engineers for large scale mapping of any
region for most urban and land development applications.
• Information from satellite images when combined with GIS mapping is used for
analysis in evaluating construction costs as well as environmental impact of
alternative routes for utility and transport corridors; land cover and land use
classification; identifying population groups at risk where human intervention is
most needed to limit and prevent hazards during development stages.
PURPOSE AND BENEFITS OF GIS
What does GIS do?
What does GIS actually do? Several things, in fact:
• It allows users to map multiple different sources of geographic data within a
single computerized environment.
• Different data sources are usually treated as layers, which may be reordered
and switched on and off at will, set to varying transparencies, and manipulated
through tools such as zooming, panning, and sometimes rotating.
• It allows users to employ many different & powerful tools to analyze the spatial
distribution of their data.
• This spatial analysis can provide a route into discovering and unlocking
previously unseen patterns in our data, shedding new light on unknown aspects
of the past.
• It also allows users to produce paper and electronic maps for inclusion in their
work and for the dissemination of their results to the wider archaeological,
historical and public communities.
• Depending on the GIS software used, this might include animations or
interactive maps delivered over the internet.
FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF GIS
• GIS in the wider sense consists of software, data, people, and an organisation in
which it is used. We should note that organisation factors will define the
context and rules for the capture, processing and sharing of geo-information, as
well as the role which GIS plays in the organisation as a whole.

• GIS consists of several functional components- components which support key

GIS functions. These are data capture and preparation, data storage, data
analysis, and presentation of spatial data. The system should not be called a
geographic information system if any one of these components is missing.
The Components of GIS
A Geographic Information System is a system of computer software, hardware and
data, and the personnel that make it possible to enter, manipulate, analyze, and
present information that is tied to a location on the earth’s surface.
The components of a GIS fall into three main categories.
• Computer Hardware and Software
• Spatial Data from the “Real World”
• Trained Personnel
Hardware/Software:
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. The software runs on a wide
range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers
used in stand-alone or networked configurations. GIS software provides functions
and tools needed to input and store geographic information. It also provides query
tools, performs analysis, and displays geographic information in the form of maps
or reports. All GIS software packages rely on an underlying database management
system (DBMS) for storage and management of the geographic and attribute data.
The GIS communicates with the DBMS to perform queries specified by the user.
Data:
• Data is one of the most important, and often most expensive, components of a
GIS. Geographic data, which is comprised of geographic features and their
corresponding attribute information, is entered into a GIS using a technique
called digitizing.
• This process involves digitally encoding geographic features, such as buildings,
roads or county boundaries.
• Digitizing is done by tracing the location, path or boundary of geographic
features either on a computer screen using a scanned map in the background,
or a paper map that is attached to a digitizing tablet.
• The digitizing process can be very tedious and time consuming, especially when
capturing large datasets such as soil polygons, streams or topographic contours.
Fortunately, much of the data GIS users need has been created by government
agencies or commercial operations, and is available for free or for purchase
from the data provider or from a spatial data clearinghouse.
People:
• The real power of a GIS comes from the people who use them. Over the past
decade, computers have become much easier for people to use and more
affordable for companies, schools and organizations to purchase.
• Given this fact, the number of GIS users has increased rapidly, and no longer
includes only GIS specialists.
• Today GIS is being used by people, in many different fields, as a tool that
enables them to perform their jobs more effectively. Police use GIS to solve
crimes, Emergency 911 operators use GIS to send emergency personnel to a
person in distress, biologists use GIS to protect plant and animal species,
teachers use GIS to teach lessons in geography, history or engineering.
• The list of GIS users in the 21st century goes on and on. Whatever the
application, the user is the key to a successful GIS.
GIS Data Types
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) utilize several distinct data types to
represent, analyze, and manage spatial information. Understanding these types is
fundamental to effective GIS use.
1. Spatial Data
• Spatial data describes the location and shape of geographic features. It is
primarily represented in the following models:
A. Vector Data
Vector data models geographic features using geometric shapes:
• Point Data: Represents discrete locations with no area or length, such as wells,
schools, or trees.
• Line (Polyline) Data: Represents linear features with length but no area, such as
rivers, roads, or pipelines.
• Polygon Data: Represents areas with both length and area, such as lakes, city
boundaries, or land parcels.
B. Raster Data
Raster data represents spatial information as a grid (matrix) of cells or pixels,
where each cell contains a value representing information such as color, elevation,
or temperature.
• Continuous Data: Ideal for phenomena that change gradually across space
(e.g., elevation, rainfall, temperature).
• Resolution: Determined by pixel size; higher resolution means more detail but
larger file sizes.
• Bands: Raster data can have single or multiple bands (layers), useful for
multispectral satellite imagery
C. Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)
• TIN is a vector-based model that represents surfaces using contiguous, non-
overlapping triangles. It is commonly used for terrain modeling and elevation
data.
D. Image Data
• Image data refers to graphic or pictorial data, such as scanned maps or
photographs. While often stored as raster, image data in GIS is distinct because
it may require georeferencing to align with spatial coordinates
2. Attribute Data
• Attribute data, also called non-spatial or tabular data, provides descriptive
information about spatial features. Each spatial feature (point, line, polygon, or
raster cell) is linked to one or more attributes in a table
Examples:
• A point representing a school may have attributes like name, type, and student
population.
• A polygon representing a city may have attributes like population, area, and
administrative status.
Types of Attribute Data:
• Nominal: Categories or names (e.g., land use type)
• Ordinal: Rankings (e.g., soil quality class)
• Interval: Measured values without a true zero (e.g., temperature)
• Ratio: Quantitative values with a true zero (e.g., population count)
3. Metadata
Metadata is data about data. It documents the origin, accuracy, projection, scale,
and other properties of GIS datasets, ensuring data can be understood, shared,
and reused effectively.
• Metadata typically includes:
• Data source and acquisition method
• Coordinate system and projection
• Data quality and accuracy
• Date of creation and updates
Sources Of GIS Data
GIS data comes from a wide array of sources, each offering unique advantages and
suited to different applications. These sources can be broadly categorized
into primary and secondary data sources, as well as by their method of acquisition
and thematic focus.
Primary Sources
• Primary sources involve the direct collection of new data specifically for GIS
purposes. Common methods include:
• Remote Sensing:
– Satellite imagery and aerial photography provide large-scale, up-to-date
raster data for land use, vegetation, elevation, and more.
– Examples: Landsat, SPOT, ASTER GDEM, OpenAerialMap
• Field Surveys:
– Data collected using GPS devices, total stations, or other surveying
instruments.
– Highly accurate for small areas or specific features (e.g., property
boundaries, utilities).
• Drone Data:
– Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) capture high-resolution imagery and
elevation data, increasingly used for local mapping and monitoring.
• Wireless Sensor Networks:
– Networks of sensors automatically collect environmental or infrastructural
data, such as weather stations or traffic counters
Secondary GIS Data Sources
• Secondary sources reuse or adapt existing data for GIS applications. These
methods include:
• Scanning and Digitization:
– Hard-copy maps, blueprints, or aerial photos are scanned and
georeferenced, then digitized into vector or raster formats.
– Manual digitization involves tracing features over scanned images using
specialized software or tablets.
• Data Conversion and Transformation:
– Legacy data (e.g., paper records, tabular data) is converted into GIS-
compatible formats.
• Photogrammetry:
– Extracting spatial information from photographs, often used to create
elevation models or map features from historical images.
• Feature Construction and Vectorization:
– Automated or semi-automated software identifies and converts features
(points, lines, polygons) from raster images into vector data.
Other Methods of Data Acquisition
• Data Sharing and Exchange:
– Organizations and agencies share geospatial datasets, often through
geoportals or open data platforms.
– Examples: USGS, OpenStreetMap, Natural Earth, Global Administrative
Areas.
• Purchasing Data:
– Commercial providers offer specialized or high-resolution datasets for
purchase, such as detailed satellite imagery or demographic data
Key Trends in GIS for 2025
• GIS technology is rapidly evolving, with 2025 marking significant advancements
and broader industry adoption. Below are the most prominent trends shaping
the GIS landscape:
AI and Machine Learning Integration
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are transforming geospatial
analysis by automating complex tasks, enabling predictive modeling, and
uncovering patterns in massive datasets. This is vital for applications like urban
planning, environmental monitoring, and disaster management, where real-time,
actionable insights are crucial
Real-Time GIS and IoT Integration
• The fusion of GIS with the Internet of Things (IoT) is enabling real-time data
collection, visualization, and analysis. IoT sensors feed live data into GIS
platforms for applications such as traffic management, environmental
monitoring, and smart city infrastructure, allowing for faster and more informed
decision-making.
3D GIS and Digital Twins
• 3D GIS is expanding beyond traditional mapping to model buildings,
infrastructure, and natural environments in three dimensions. Digital twins-
virtual replicas of physical assets-are increasingly used in urban planning,
utilities, and construction, offering immersive, interactive simulations for
monitoring and management.
Cloud-Based GIS and Web GIS
• Cloud technologies are making GIS more accessible, scalable, and collaborative.
Web GIS platforms allow users to access, share, and analyze spatial data from
anywhere, supporting remote work and cross-organizational collaboration.
Business Intelligence and Location-Based Services
• GIS is being integrated with Business Intelligence (BI) tools, adding spatial
context to analytics and supporting data-driven decision-making in sectors like
retail, logistics, and finance. Location-based services are now central to
personalized marketing, asset tracking, and operational optimization
Advancements in Data Collection
• New technologies such as drones, high-resolution satellites, and mobile
mapping systems are improving the accuracy and timeliness of spatial data
collection. These tools are making it easier to map inaccessible areas and
monitor changes over time.
Future Trends in GIS (2025 and Beyond)
• The future of GIS is defined by rapid innovation, integration of emerging
technologies, and expanding applications across industries. Key trends shaping
GIS from 2025 onward include:

1. AI and Machine Learning Integration (GeoAI)

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are revolutionizing spatial
data analytics, enabling automated feature extraction, predictive modeling,
anomaly detection, and advanced image recognition.
• GeoAI-combining AI with geospatial data-enables deeper insights, such as
predicting natural disasters, monitoring environmental changes, and optimizing
urban planning
2. Real-Time GIS and IoT Integration
• The Internet of Things (IoT) is generating massive streams of real-time location
data, which GIS platforms harness for applications like traffic management,
smart city infrastructure, environmental monitoring, and logistics.
• Real-time GIS enables dynamic, adaptive decision-making and rapid response
to changing conditions.
3. 3D GIS and Digital Twins
• 3D GIS is expanding from urban planning into fields like forestry, mining, and
marine science, providing immersive visualizations and more accurate
modeling.
• Digital twins-virtual replicas of real-world systems-are increasingly used to
simulate, monitor, and optimize infrastructure, utilities, and urban
environments
4. Cloud-Based and Mobile GIS
• Cloud computing is making GIS more accessible, scalable, and collaborative,
supporting real-time data sharing and analysis from anywhere.
• Mobile GIS empowers field workers with instant data collection and updates,
enhancing asset management, environmental monitoring, and disaster
response
5. Location-Based Services (LBS) and Business Intelligence
• The demand for location-based services continues to rise, driving personalized
experiences in retail, logistics, healthcare, and beyond.
• Integration with business intelligence tools adds spatial context to analytics,
supporting data-driven decision-making.
6. Blockchain for Geospatial Data
• Blockchain technology is being adopted to ensure the authenticity, security, and
transparency of geospatial data, especially in sectors like real estate and land
administration.
7. Enhanced Data Collection and Custom Solutions
• Advancements in data collection (drones, high-res satellites, sensor networks)
are improving spatial data quality and timeliness.
• Customized geospatial solutions are expanding into new domains, from climate
resilience to agriculture and telecom.
8. Immersive Spatial Computing and the Metaverse
• Technologies like spatial computing and the metaverse are enabling interactive,
immersive mapping experiences, with applications in urban planning, real
estate, and environmental monitoring.