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Unit 3 Prolog Programming-1

The document provides an introduction to Prolog, a logic programming language, covering its syntax, basic constructs like facts, rules, and queries, as well as its historical development. It emphasizes Prolog's declarative nature and its application in knowledge-rich tasks, particularly in artificial intelligence. Examples of Prolog programs and knowledge bases illustrate how facts and rules are used to derive conclusions and answer queries.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

32 views77 pages

Unit 3 Prolog Programming-1

Uploaded by

Aditya Raj

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Prolog

Logic Programming
SWI Prolog

• Freely available Prolog interpreter

• Works with
– Linux,
– Windows, or
– Mac OS
• There are many more Prolog
interpreters
• Not all are ISO compliant
Lecture 1

• Theory
– Introduction to Prolog
– Facts, Rules and Queries
– Prolog Syntax
Aim of this lecture
• Give some simple examples of Prolog
programs
• Discuss the three basic constructs in Prolog:
– Facts
– Rules
– Queries
• Introduce other concepts, such as
– the role of logic
– unification with the help of variables
• Begin the systematic study of Prolog by
defining terms, atoms, and variables
Prolog

• "Programming with Logic"

• Declarative
• Very different from other (procedural)
programming languages
• Good for knowledge-rich tasks
History of Prolog

first Prolog interpreter by

Colmerauer and Roussel

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

History of Prolog

implementation of
DEC10 compiler by
Warren

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

History of Prolog

Definite Clause Grammars

implementation by Pereira
and Warren

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

History of Prolog

Prolog grows in popularity

especially in Europe and Japan

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

History of Prolog

Prolog used to program

natural language
interface in
International Space
Station by NASA

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

Basic idea of Prolog

• Describe the situation of interest

• Ask a question
• Prolog logically deduces new facts
about the situation we described
• Prolog gives us its deductions back as
answers
Consequences

• Think declaratively, not procedurally

– Challenging
– Requires a different mindset
• High-level language
– Not as efficient as, say, C
– Good for rapid prototyping
– Useful in many AI applications
http://www.cs.trincoll.edu/~ram/cpsc352/n
otes/prolog/factsrules.html
Facts, Rules and Queries
Symbols

• Prolog expressions are comprised of the following

truth-functional symbols, which have the same
interpretation as in the predicate calculus.

Predicate
English PROLOG
Calculus
and ^ ,
or v ;
if --> :-
not ~ not
Variables and Names

Variables begin with an uppercase letter. Predicate names,

function names, and the names for objects must begin with a
lowercase letter. Rules for forming names are the same as for
the predicate calculus.
•mother_of
•male
•female
•greater_than
•socrates
Facts
A fact is a predicate expression that makes a declarative
statement about the problem domain. Whenever a variable
occurs in a Prolog expression, it is assumed to be universally
quantified. Note that all Prolog sentences must end with a
period.

•likes(john, susie). /* John likes Susie */

•likes(X, susie). /* Everyone likes Susie */
•likes(john, Y). /* John likes everybody */
•likes(john, Y), likes(Y, john). /* John likes everybody and everybody likes John */
•likes(john, susie); likes(john,mary). /* John likes Susie or John likes Mary */
•not(likes(john,pizza)). /* John does not like pizza */
•likes(john,susie) :- likes(john,mary)./* John likes Susie if John likes Mary.
Rules
A rule is a predicate expression that uses logical implication (:-)
to describe a relationship among facts. Thus a Prolog rule takes
the form
left_hand_side :- right_hand_side .
•This sentence is interpreted as: left_hand_side if right_hand_side.
•The left_hand_side is restricted to a single, positive, literal, which
means it must consist of a positive atomic expression. It cannot be
negated and it cannot contain logical connectives.
•This notation is known as a Horn clause. In Horn clause logic, the left
hand side of the clause is the conclusion, and must be a single positive
literal.
•The right hand side contains the premises. The Horn clause calculus is
equivalent to the first-order predicate calculus.
Rules
Examples of valid rules:

friends(X,Y) :- likes(X,Y),likes(Y,X). /* X and Y are friends if they

like each other */
hates(X,Y) :- not(likes(X,Y)). /* X hates Y if X does not like
Y. */
enemies(X,Y) :- not(likes(X,Y)),not(likes(Y,X)). /* X and Y are enemies
if they don't like each other */

Examples of invalid rules:

left_of(X,Y) :- right_of(Y,X) /* Missing a period */

likes(X,Y),likes(Y,X) :- friends(X,Y). /* LHS is not a single literal */
not(likes(X,Y)) :- hates(X,Y). /* LHS cannot be negated */
Queries
• The Prolog interpreter responds to queries about the facts
and rules represented in its database.
• The database is assumed to represent what is true about a
particular problem domain.
• In making a query you are asking Prolog whether it can prove
that your query is true.
• If so, it answers "yes" and displays any variable bindings that
it made in coming up with the answer.
• If it fails to prove the query true, it answers "No".
• Whenever you run the Prolog interpreter, it will prompt you
with ?-. For example, suppose our database consists of the
following facts about a fictitious family.
Queries
• father_of(joe,paul).
• father_of(joe,mary).
• mother_of(jane,paul).
• mother_of(jane,mary).
• male(paul).
• male(joe).
• female(mary).
• female(jane).
Queries
• We get the following results when we make queries about this
database. (I've added comments, enclosed in /*..*/, to interpret
each query.)
Queries
•| ?- ['family.pl'].
•compiling
/home/ram/public_html/cpsc352/prolog/family.pl for
byte code...
•/home/ram/public_html/cpsc352/prolog/family.pl
compiled, 9 lines read - 999 bytes written, 94 ms

•(10 ms) yes •(10 ms) yes

•| ?- listing. •| ?- father_of(joe,paul).

•mother_of(jane, paul). •true ?

•mother_of(jane, mary).
•yes
•male(paul). •| ?- father_of(paul,mary).
•male(joe).
•no
•female(mary). •| ?- father_of(X,mary).
•female(jane).
•X = joe
•father_of(joe, paul).
•father_of(joe, mary). •yes
•| ?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
yes
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
no
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
no
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
ERROR: predicate tattoed/1 not defined.
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.
yes
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.
no
?-
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
rule
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

head body
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?-
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
yes
?-
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(yolanda).
yes
Clauses
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are five clauses in this knowledge base:

two facts, and three rules.

The end of a clause is marked with a full stop.

Predicates
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are three predicates

in this knowledge base:
happy, listens2music, and playsAirGuitar
Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
Expressing Conjunction
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

The comma “," expresses conjunction in Prolog

Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(vincent).
no
?-
Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(butch).
yes
?-
Expressing Disjunction

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch); listens2music(butch).
Prolog and Logic

• Clearly Prolog has something to do with

logic
• Operators
– Implication :-
– Conjunction ,
– Disjunction ;
• Use of modus ponens
• Negation
Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
Prolog Variables
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).