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Unit 3 Prolog Programming-1

The document provides an introduction to Prolog, a logic programming language, covering its syntax, basic constructs like facts, rules, and queries, as well as its historical development. It emphasizes Prolog's declarative nature and its application in knowledge-rich tasks, particularly in artificial intelligence. Examples of Prolog programs and knowledge bases illustrate how facts and rules are used to derive conclusions and answer queries.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

4 views

Unit 3 Prolog Programming-1

Uploaded by

Aditya Raj

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Prolog

Logic Programming
SWI Prolog

• Freely available Prolog interpreter

• Works with
– Linux,
– Windows, or
– Mac OS
• There are many more Prolog
interpreters
• Not all are ISO compliant
Lecture 1

• Theory
– Introduction to Prolog
– Facts, Rules and Queries
– Prolog Syntax
Aim of this lecture
• Give some simple examples of Prolog
programs
• Discuss the three basic constructs in Prolog:
– Facts
– Rules
– Queries
• Introduce other concepts, such as
– the role of logic
– unification with the help of variables
• Begin the systematic study of Prolog by
defining terms, atoms, and variables
Prolog

• "Programming with Logic"

• Declarative
• Very different from other (procedural)
programming languages
• Good for knowledge-rich tasks
History of Prolog

first Prolog interpreter by

Colmerauer and Roussel

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

History of Prolog

implementation of
DEC10 compiler by
Warren

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

History of Prolog

Definite Clause Grammars

implementation by Pereira
and Warren

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

History of Prolog

Prolog grows in popularity

especially in Europe and Japan

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

History of Prolog

Prolog used to program

natural language
interface in
International Space
Station by NASA

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005

Basic idea of Prolog

• Describe the situation of interest

• Ask a question
• Prolog logically deduces new facts
about the situation we described
• Prolog gives us its deductions back as
answers
Consequences

• Think declaratively, not procedurally

– Challenging
– Requires a different mindset
• High-level language
– Not as efficient as, say, C
– Good for rapid prototyping
– Useful in many AI applications
http://www.cs.trincoll.edu/~ram/cpsc352/n
otes/prolog/factsrules.html
Facts, Rules and Queries
Symbols

• Prolog expressions are comprised of the following

truth-functional symbols, which have the same
interpretation as in the predicate calculus.

Predicate
English PROLOG
Calculus
and ^ ,
or v ;
if --> :-
not ~ not
Variables and Names

Variables begin with an uppercase letter. Predicate names,

function names, and the names for objects must begin with a
lowercase letter. Rules for forming names are the same as for
the predicate calculus.
•mother_of
•male
•female
•greater_than
•socrates
Facts
A fact is a predicate expression that makes a declarative
statement about the problem domain. Whenever a variable
occurs in a Prolog expression, it is assumed to be universally
quantified. Note that all Prolog sentences must end with a
period.

•likes(john, susie). /* John likes Susie */

•likes(X, susie). /* Everyone likes Susie */
•likes(john, Y). /* John likes everybody */
•likes(john, Y), likes(Y, john). /* John likes everybody and everybody likes John */
•likes(john, susie); likes(john,mary). /* John likes Susie or John likes Mary */
•not(likes(john,pizza)). /* John does not like pizza */
•likes(john,susie) :- likes(john,mary)./* John likes Susie if John likes Mary.
Rules
A rule is a predicate expression that uses logical implication (:-)
to describe a relationship among facts. Thus a Prolog rule takes
the form
left_hand_side :- right_hand_side .
•This sentence is interpreted as: left_hand_side if right_hand_side.
•The left_hand_side is restricted to a single, positive, literal, which
means it must consist of a positive atomic expression. It cannot be
negated and it cannot contain logical connectives.
•This notation is known as a Horn clause. In Horn clause logic, the left
hand side of the clause is the conclusion, and must be a single positive
literal.
•The right hand side contains the premises. The Horn clause calculus is
equivalent to the first-order predicate calculus.
Rules
Examples of valid rules:

friends(X,Y) :- likes(X,Y),likes(Y,X). /* X and Y are friends if they

like each other */
hates(X,Y) :- not(likes(X,Y)). /* X hates Y if X does not like
Y. */
enemies(X,Y) :- not(likes(X,Y)),not(likes(Y,X)). /* X and Y are enemies
if they don't like each other */

Examples of invalid rules:

left_of(X,Y) :- right_of(Y,X) /* Missing a period */

likes(X,Y),likes(Y,X) :- friends(X,Y). /* LHS is not a single literal */
not(likes(X,Y)) :- hates(X,Y). /* LHS cannot be negated */
Queries
• The Prolog interpreter responds to queries about the facts
and rules represented in its database.
• The database is assumed to represent what is true about a
particular problem domain.
• In making a query you are asking Prolog whether it can prove
that your query is true.
• If so, it answers "yes" and displays any variable bindings that
it made in coming up with the answer.
• If it fails to prove the query true, it answers "No".
• Whenever you run the Prolog interpreter, it will prompt you
with ?-. For example, suppose our database consists of the
following facts about a fictitious family.
Queries
• father_of(joe,paul).
• father_of(joe,mary).
• mother_of(jane,paul).
• mother_of(jane,mary).
• male(paul).
• male(joe).
• female(mary).
• female(jane).
Queries
• We get the following results when we make queries about this
database. (I've added comments, enclosed in /*..*/, to interpret
each query.)
Queries
•| ?- ['family.pl'].
•compiling
/home/ram/public_html/cpsc352/prolog/family.pl for
byte code...
•/home/ram/public_html/cpsc352/prolog/family.pl
compiled, 9 lines read - 999 bytes written, 94 ms

•(10 ms) yes •(10 ms) yes

•| ?- listing. •| ?- father_of(joe,paul).

•mother_of(jane, paul). •true ?

•mother_of(jane, mary).
•yes
•male(paul). •| ?- father_of(paul,mary).
•male(joe).
•no
•female(mary). •| ?- father_of(X,mary).
•female(jane).
•X = joe
•father_of(joe, paul).
•father_of(joe, mary). •yes
•| ?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
yes
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
no
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
no
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
ERROR: predicate tattoed/1 not defined.
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.
yes
?-
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.
no
?-
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
rule
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

head body
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?-
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
yes
?-
Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(yolanda).
yes
Clauses
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are five clauses in this knowledge base:

two facts, and three rules.

The end of a clause is marked with a full stop.

Predicates
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are three predicates

in this knowledge base:
happy, listens2music, and playsAirGuitar
Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
Expressing Conjunction
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

The comma “," expresses conjunction in Prolog

Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(vincent).
no
?-
Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(butch).
yes
?-
Expressing Disjunction

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch); listens2music(butch).
Prolog and Logic

• Clearly Prolog has something to do with

logic
• Operators
– Implication :-
– Conjunction ,
– Disjunction ;
• Use of modus ponens
• Negation
Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
Prolog Variables
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).