Intrinsic & Extrinsic Materials

• Intrinsic material: A perfect material with no impurities.

Eg
n  p ni  exp( )
2 k BT
n, p & ni are the electron, hole & intrinsic concentrations respectively
E g is the gap energy, T is Temperatur e.

• Extrinsic material: donor or acceptor type semiconductors.

2
pn ni

• Majority carriers: electrons in n-type or holes in p-type.

• Minority carriers: holes in n-type or electrons in p-type.
• The operation of semiconductor devices is essentially based on the
injection and extraction of minority carriers.
 The pn Junction

Electron diffusion across a pn junction

creates a barrier potential (electric field)
in the depletion region.
 Reverse-biased pn Junction

A reverse bias widens the depletion region, but allows minority carriers to
move freely with the applied field.
 Forward-biased pn Junction

Lowering the barrier potential with a forward bias allows majority

carriers to diffuse across the junction.
 Direct & Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors
The band gap represents the minimum energy difference between the top of the
valence band and the bottom of the conduction band

However, the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band are not
generally at the same value of the electron momentum.

In a direct band gap semiconductor, the top of the valence band and the bottom of
the conduction band occur at the same value of momentum

In an indirect band gap semiconductor, the maximum energy of the valence band
occurs at a different value of momentum to the minimum in the conduction band
energy
 Optical Source
• An optical source converts electrical energy (current) into
optical energy (light).

• Light emitted by an optical source is launched, or coupled,

into an optical fiber for transmission.

• Performance of a fiber optic data link depends on the

amount of optical power (light) launched into the optical
fiber.
 Optical Source Properties
It is desirable that optical sources

• Be compatible in size
• Having a small light-emitting area for launching light into fiber
• Emit light at wavelengths that minimize optical fiber loss and dispersion.
• Launch sufficient optical power into the optical fiber to overcome fiber
attenuation and connection losses and allowing for signal detection at the
receiver
• Optical sources should have a narrow spectral width to minimize dispersion
• Maintain stable operation in changing environmental conditions (such as
temperature)
• Less cost and be more reliable than electrical devices, permitting fiber optic
communication systems to compete with conventional systems
 Optical Sources in Fiber Optics

Semiconductor optical sources suitable for fiber optic systems

range from inexpensive Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to more
expensive semiconductor lasers.

Semiconductor LEDs and laser diodes (LDs) are the principal

light sources used in fiber optics.
Semiconductor Light Emitting Diodes and Laser
Diodes
Semiconductor LEDs emit incoherent light

Spontaneous emission of light in semiconductor LEDs

produces light waves that lack a fixed-phase relationship.

Light waves that lack a fixed-phase relationship are

referred to as incoherent light.
Semiconductor Laser Diodes emit coherent light.

LDs produce light waves with a fixed-phase relationship (both

spatial and temporal) between points on the electromagnetic wave.

Light waves having a fixed-phase relationship are referred to as

coherent light.

Since semiconductor LDs emit more focused light than LEDs, they
are able to launch optical power into both single mode and
multimode optical fibers.

However, LDs are usually used only in single mode fiber systems
because they require more complex driver circuitry and cost more
than LEDs.
Optical power produced by optical sources can range from
microwatts for LEDs to tens of milliwatts for semiconductor LDs.

However, it is not possible to effectively couple all the available

optical power into the optical fiber for transmission.

The amount of optical power coupled into the fiber depends on

the following factors:

• The angles over which the light is emitted

• The size of the source's light-emitting area relative to the
fiber core size
• The alignment of the source and fiber
• The coupling characteristics of the fiber (such as the NA and
the refractive index profile)
Typically, semiconductor lasers emit light spread out over an
angle of 10 to 15 degrees.

Semiconductor LEDs emit light spread out at even larger angles.

Coupling losses of several decibels can easily occur when

coupling light from an optical source to a fiber, especially with
LEDs.

Source-to-fiber coupling efficiency is a measure of the relevant

optical power.
The coupling efficiency depends on the type of fiber that is attached
to the optical source.

If the source's output light pattern is larger than the fiber's

acceptance pattern, source-to-fiber coupling efficiency may be
improved by placing a small lens between the source and fiber.

Lensing schemes improve coupling efficiency when coupling both

LEDs and LDs to optical fibers.
Semiconductor Materials Used in Fiber Optic Devices

• Silicon (Si) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) are the two most
common semiconductor materials used in electronic and
electro-optic devices.

• In some cases other elements, such as aluminum (Al),

indium (In) and phosphorus (P), are added to the base
semiconductor material to modify the semiconductor
properties.

• These elements are called dopants.

• Current flowing through a semiconductor optical source

causes it to produce light.
• In the laser diode, photons, initially produced by spontaneous emission
interact with the laser material to produce additional photons.

• LEDs generally produce light through spontaneous emission when a current is

passed through them.

• The emitted photons move in random directions.

• Only a certain percentage of the photons exit the semiconductor and are
coupled into the fiber.

• Many of the photons are absorbed by the LED materials and the energy
dissipated as heat.

This process causes the light output from an LED to be incoherent, have a broad spectral
width, and have a wide output pattern.
Laser diodes are much more complex than LEDs.

LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of

Radiation.

Laser diodes produce light through stimulated emission when a current is

passed through them.

Spontaneous emission is the process by which an atom, molecule, nano

crystal or nucleus in an excited state undergoes a transition to a state with a
lower energy, e.g., the ground state and emits a photon.

Stimulated emission is the process by which an atomic electron (or an

excited molecular state) interacting with an electromagnetic wave of a
certain frequency may drop to a lower energy level, transferring its energy to
that field, thereby emitting a photon.
• This process occurs within the active area of the diode called the laser cavity.

• The process does not affect the original photon.

• The stimulated photon has many of the same properties (wavelength,

direction, phase) as the original photon.

• As with the LED, not all of the photons produced are emitted from the laser
diode.

• Some of the photons are absorbed and the energy dissipated as heat.

• The emission process and the physical characteristics of the diode cause the
light output to be coherent, have a narrow spectral width, and have a narrow
output pattern
 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent
light, through spontaneous emission, when a current is passed through it.

Typically LEDs for the 850-nm region are fabricated using GaAs and AlGaAs.

LEDs for the 1300-nm and 1550-nm regions are fabricated using InGaAsP
and InP.

The basic LED types used for fiber optic communication systems are the
surface-emitting LED (SLED), the edge-emitting LED (ELED), and the Super
Luminescent Diode (SLD).

LED performance differences help link designers decide which device is

appropriate for the intended application
• For short-distance (0 to 3 km), low-data-rate fiber optic systems, SLEDs and
ELEDs are the preferred optical source.

• Typically, SLEDs operate efficiently for bit rates up to 250 megabits per
second (Mb/s).

• Because SLEDs emit light over a wide area (wide far-field angle), they are
almost exclusively used in multimode systems.

• For medium-distance, medium-data-rate systems, ELEDs are preferred.

• ELEDs may be modulated at rates up to 400 Mb/s. ELEDs may be used for
both single mode and multimode fiber systems.

• Both Super Luminescent Diode (SLD) and ELEDs are used in long-distance,
high-data-rate systems.

• SLDs are ELED-based diodes designed to operate in the super luminescence

mode.

• SLDs may be modulated at bit rates of over 400 Mb/s.

 Surface-Emitting LEDs
• The surface-emitting LED, is also known as the Burrus LED in honor of C. A.
Burrus, its developer.

• In SLEDs, the size of the primary active region is limited to a small circular
area of 20 µm to 50 µm in diameter, with a thickness of 2.5 µm.

• The active region is the portion of the LED where photons are emitted.

• The primary active region is below the surface of the semiconductor

substrate perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.

• A well is etched into the substrate to allow direct coupling of the emitted
light to the optical fiber.

• The etched well allows the optical fiber to come into close contact with
the emitting surface.

• In addition, the epoxy resin adhesive that binds the optical fiber to the
SLED reduces the refractive index mismatch, increasing coupling efficiency.
Surface-Emitting LED (SLED) Structure.
 Surface-Emitting LED Structure

Schematic of high-radiance surface-emitting LED. The active region is limitted

to a circular cross section that has an area compatible with the fiber-core end face.
 Edge-Emitting LEDs
The demand for optical sources
for longer distance, higher
bandwidth systems operating at
longer wavelengths led to the
development of edge-emitting
LEDs.

Stripe contact defines active area

Figure shows the different layers of semiconductor material used in the ELED.

The primary active region of the ELED is a narrow stripe, which lies below the surface
of the semiconductor substrate.

The semiconductor substrate is cut or polished so that the stripe runs between the
front and back of the device.

The polished or cut surfaces at each end of the stripe are called facets.
Edge-Emitting LED Structure
 Edge-Emitting LEDs
• In an ELED the rear facet is highly reflective and the front facet is
antireflection-coated in order to reduce optical feedback and allows light
emission.

• The rear facet reflects the light propagating towards the rear facet back
towards the front facet.

• ELEDs emit light only through the front facet. ELEDs emit light in a narrow
emission angle allowing for better source-to-fiber coupling.

• They couple more power into small Numerical Aperture (NA) fibers than
SLEDs. ELEDs can couple enough power into single mode fibers for some
applications ELEDs emit power over a narrower spectral range than SLEDs.

• However, ELEDs typically are more sensitive to temperature fluctuations than

SLEDs.
The use of LEDs in single mode systems is severely limited because they emit
unfocused incoherent light.

Even LEDs developed for single mode systems are unable to launch sufficient optical
power into single mode fibers for many applications.

LEDs are the preferred optical source for multimode systems because they can launch
sufficient power at a lower cost than semiconductor LDs.

Drawbacks of LED
• Large line width (30-40 nm)
• Large beam width (Low coupling to the fiber)
• Low output power
• Low E/O conversion efficiency

Advantage
• Robustness
 Light Source Material
• Ga1 x Al x As by varying x it is possible to control the band-gap
energy and thereby the emission wavelength over the range of 800
nm to 900 nm. The spectral width is around 20 to 40 nm.
Eg 1.424  1.266 x  0.266 x 2 for 0  x  0.37
• by changing 0 < x < 0.47; y is approximately 2.2x,
In1 x Ga x Asy P1 y
the emission wavelength can be controlled over the range of 920 nm
to 1600 nm. The spectral width varies from 70 nm to 180 nm
Eg 1.35  1.266 y  0.266 y 2 for 0  x  0.47 and y =2.20x
hc
E h  ,  is peak emission wavelength

if E g is the energy band-gap in electron volts
1.240
 (m) 
E g (eV )

Note : x and y are the mole fractions in the active area

Relationship between crystal lattice spacing, energy gap and
diode emission wavelength at room temperature
Spectral width of LED types
Rate equations, Quantum Efficiency & Power of LEDs
• Recombination occurs in diodes, where charge carriers recombine in pairs

• When there is no external carrier injection, the excess density decays

exponentially due to electron-hole recombination.
n(t ) n0 e  t /
• 𝑛is the excess carrier density,
n0 : initial injected excess electron density
 : carrier lifetime.
• Bulk recombination rate R:
dn n
R  
dt 

• Bulk recombination rate (R)= Radiative recombination rate + non-

Radiative recombination rate
 bulk recombination rate (R 1 / τ ) 
radiative recombination rate (Rr 1 / τ r )  non-radiative recombination rate(Rnr 1 / τ nr )
1 1 1
Bulk Recombination Lifetime, is:  
 r  nr
 r and  nr are the radiative and non-radiative recombination lifetimes

With an external supplied current density of J the rate equation for the electron-hole
recombination is:
dn(t ) J n
 
dt qd 
q : charge of the electron; d : thickness of recombination region

In equilibrium condition: dn/dt=0

J
excess carrier density, n 
qd
 Internal Quantum Efficiency & Optical Power
Rr  
int 0   nr 
Rr  Rnr  r   nr  r
int : internal quantum efficiency in the active region
Optical power generated internally in the active region in the LED is:
I hcI
Pint int h int
q q
Pint : Internal optical power,
I : Injected current to active region
The internal quantum efficiency is the ratio of the radiative electron-hole
recombination rate to the total (radiative and non-radiative) recombination rate.
 Order-of-magnitude values for
recombination coefficients and lifetimes
 External Quantum Eficiency

number of photons emitted from LED

ext 
number of LED internally generated photons

• In order to calculate the external quantum efficiency, we need to

consider the reflection effects at the surface of the LED.
• If we consider the LED structure as a simple 2D slab waveguide, only
light falling within a cone defined by critical angle will be emitted from
an LED.
 c
1
ext  
4 0
T ( )(2 sin  )d
4n1n2
T ( ) : Fresnel Transmissi on Coefficien t T (0) 
(n1  n2 ) 2
1
If n2 1  ext 
n1 (n1  1) 2

Pint
LED emitted optical powr, P ext Pint 
n1 (n1  1) 2
 Output Optical Power of LED
• The frequency response of an LED depends on:
1. Doping level in the active region
2. Injected carrier lifetime in the recombination region,  i .
3. Parasitic capacitance of the LED
• If the drive current of an LED is modulated at a frequency of 
The output optical power of the device will vary as:

P0
P ( ) 
1  ( i ) 2
• Electrical current is directly proportional to the optical power, thus we
can define electrical bandwidth and optical bandwidth, separately.

 p()   I() 
Electrical BW 10log   20 log  I ( 0) 
 p ( 0 )   
p : electrical power, I : electrical current
  P ( )   I ( ) 
Optical BW 10 log   10 log  
 P ( 0 )   I ( 0 ) 
 LED vs. Laser Diodes
Lasers
LEDs
• Higher
Low costpower
• Higher
Long lifetime
speed
 The Laser Principle
• Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission
of Radiation
• Extracts energy from excited species
• Each stimulated wave is in phase with the
wave that stimulates it
• Laser has resonant cavity
• Optical amplifiers are single-pass
 Laser Diode Materials
• Composition determines wavelength range
• InGaAlAs 630 nm
• GaAlAs 780-850 nm
• InGaAs 980 nm
– Pump for erbium-doped fiber amplifier
• InGaAsP 1200-1700 nm
– Composition adjusted to pick wavelength
• Polymers in development
Howling Dog Analogy
Stimulated Emission
 Laser Diode
• Laser diode is an improved LED, in the sense that uses stimulated emission in
semiconductor from optical transitions between distribution energy states of
the valence and conduction bands with optical resonator structure such as
Fabry-Perot resonator with both optical and carrier confinements.
 DFB(Distributed FeedBack) Lasers
• In DFB lasers, the optical resonator structure is due to the incorporation of
Bragg grating or periodic variations of the refractive index into multilayer
structure along the length of the diode.
 Laser Diode Characteristics
• Response time is in Nanosecond & even pico-
second
• Spectral width is of the order of nm or less
• High output power (tens of mW)
• Narrow beam (good coupling to single mode fibers)
• Laser diodes have three distinct radiation modes
namely,
1. Longitudinal mode,
2. Lateral mode and
3. Transverse mode
 TYPES OF LASER
Lasers are categorized in to two types According to the material
used .
1. Homo-structure laser
2. Hetero-structure laser

• In homo-structure a single material is used.

• In hetero-structure different types of materials are used.

Quantum Well Laser is a type of hetero-structure laser.

 DOUBLE HETEROSTRUCTURE LASERS
• A layer of LOW BAND GAP material is embedded between two HIGHER
BAND GAP material layers.
• Each of the junction between different band gap material is called a
HETEROSTRUCTURE.
• Due to presence of two junction called double hetero-structure.
 WHAT IS A QUANTUM WELL?
• QUANTUM WELL is a thin layer which can confine particles
typically electrons and holes in the dimension perpendicular to
the layer surface.

• The movements of particle in the other dimensions are not

restricted.

• As the quantum well is very thin (typically less than 10-20nm),

the motion of electrons and holes are Quantized.

• Quantum well can be very effectively used as the active region

of semiconductor laser diodes.
 QUANTUM WELL LASER
• The middle active layer is THIN ENOUGH in the order of
5nm to 20nm.
• In quantum well, HEIGHT is reduced to confine the electrons.
 ADVANTAGES OF QUANTUM-WELL LASER DIODES

• Very small active volume - efficient recombination

• Easy to create large densities of electrons and

holes of the same energy

• Smaller non-radiative losses

• Without using different materials, different wavelength are

obtained

• Lower threshold current

• High power emission at low forward current.

APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM-WELL LASER DIODES

• CD PLAYER

• BLUE LASER

• HIGH ELECTRON MOBILITY TRANSISTOR (HEMT)

• QUANTUM WELL INFRARED PHOTODETECTOR

 CONDITIONS FOR LASING
• Main requirements :
1.STIMULATED EMISSION
2.POPULATION INVERTION
 Laser Operation & Threshold Condition or lasing condition

• To determine the lasing condition, one should focus on the optical

wave propagation along the longitudinal direction, z-axis. The optical
field intensity, I ( z ) , can be written as:

I ( z , t )  I ( z )e j ( t   z )
• Where  is the optical radian frequency and β is the propagation
constant
• The lasing threshold is the lowest excitation level at which
a laser's output is dominated by stimulated emission rather than
by spontaneous emission
• Lasing is the condition at which light amplification becomes possible
by virtue of population inversion.
 The radiation intensity of a photon at energy h varies exponentially with a
distance z amplified by factor g, and attenuated by factor  according to the
following relationship:
I ( Z ) I (0) exp  g (h )   (h )  Z 

I (2 L) I (0) R1 R2 expg (h )   (h ) (2 L)

Where R1 and R2 are mirror reflection coefficients or Fresnel reflection coefficients
 : Optical field confinement factor, g: gain coefficient
α : effective absorption coefficient

Optical field confinement factor speaks about the Optical field distribution in a
dielectric waveguide
At lasing threshold, steady state oscillations take place and magnitude and
phase of the returned wave must be equal to that of the original wave

Lasing Conditions: I (2 L) I (0) for amplitude

exp(  j 2  L) 1 for phase
 Semiconductor laser rate equations
• Rate equations relate the optical output power, or
• # of photons per unit volume,  , to the diode drive current or
• # of injected electrons per unit volume, n. For active (carrier
confinement) region of depth d, the rate equations are:
d 
Cn  Rsp 
dt  ph
Photon ratestimulatedemissionspontaneous emission photon loss
Eq [1]
dn J n
   Cn
dt qd  sp
electron rate  injection  spontaneous recombination  stimulatedemission

C : Coefficient expressingthe intensityof the opticalemission& absorptionprocess

Rsp : rate of spontaneous emissioninto the lasing mode
 ph : photonlife time
J : Injectioncurrent density
 Threshold current Density & excess electron density
C : Coefficient expressing the intensity of the optical emission & absorption process
Rsp : rate of spontaneous emission into the lasing mode
 ph : photon life time

J: Injection current density

• At the threshold of lasing:  0, d / dt 0, Rsp 0

1
from eq. [1]  Cn   /  ph 0  n  nth
C ph
• The threshold current needed to maintain a steady state threshold
concentration of the excess electron, is found from electron rate
equation under steady state condition dn/dt=0 when the laser is just
about to lase:
J th nth nth
0   J th qd
qd  sp  sp
 LASER operation beyond the threshold
• If Injection Current Density J > Jth
• The solution of the rate equations Eq. [1] gives the steady state
photon density, resulting from stimulated emission and
spontaneous emission as follows:

 ph
s  ( J  J th )   ph Rsp
qd

For laser structure with strong carrier confinement, the threshold current
Density for stimulated emission can be well approximated by:
g th J th
 : constant depends on specific device constructi on
Optical Output vs. Drive Current
 Laser Resonant Frequencies
• Lasing condition, I (2 L) I (0)
exp(  j 2  L) 1

exp( j 2  L) 1  2 L 2m , m 1, 2,3,... an integer

• Assuming the propagation constant   2n ,


L 2 Ln L 2 Ln
m 1  vm  1 and m   vm for m th mode
 / 2n c  / 2n c
• the resonant frequency of the mth mode is:
mc
m  m 1,2,3,...
2 Ln
c
 m  m 1 
2 Ln
 Laser Noise

• Modal (speckle) Noise: Fluctuations in the distribution of

energy among various modes.

• Mode partition Noise: Intensity fluctuations in the longitudinal

modes of a laser diode, main source of noise in single mode
fiber systems.

• Reflection Noise: Light output gets reflected back from the fiber
joints into the laser, couples with lasing modes, changing their
phase, and generate noise peaks. Isolators & index matching
fluids can eliminate these reflections.
 Contents

• Launching optical power into a fiber

• Fiber-to-Fiber coupling
• Fiber Splicing and connectors
 Coupling Efficiency

power coupled into the fiber PF

 
power emitted from the source Ps

Ps PF
Source Optical Fiber
 Power Coupled from source to the fiber

B= Optical power radiated from a unit area of the source into a unit angle
[watts/(square centimeter per steradian)]
As and  s : area of the source and emission angle of the source

 
P   B(A s , s )ds  dA s
Af 
 f 
Af and  f : area of the fiber and rm 2
 2  0max 
acceptance angle of fiber      B(, ) sin dd  ds rdr
0 0  0 0 
 Power coupled from LED to the Fiber
If B0 is the radiance along the normal of the radiating surface

 0 max
rs

2

P   2B0 cos  sin d  d s rdr

0
 
0 0 
rs 2
B0  sin 2  0 max d s rdr
0 0
rs 2 2

B0  NA d s rdr

0 0

PLED, step  2 rs 2 B0 (NA)2 2 2 rs 2 B0 n12 

 Power coupling from LED to step-index fiber

• Total optical power from LED:

2  / 2
Ps  As  B( ,  ) sin dd
0 0
 /2
2 2
Ps rs 2B0      2
cos sin d  rs B0
0

 Ps ( NA) 2 if rs a 
 
PLED, step  a  2 

  s  P ( NA) 2
if rs a 
 rs  

2
 2  s 
r
PLED,graded 2 Ps n1   1    
   2  a  
Examples of possible lensing schemes used to improve optical source-to-fiber coupling
efficiency
 Fiber-to-Fiber Joint

• Fiber-to-Fiber coupling loss:

LF [dB]  10 log  F
where  F is fiber-to-fiber coupling efficiency

• Low loss fiber-fiber joints are either:

1- Splice (permanent bond)
2- Connector (demountable connection)
Different modal distribution of the optical beam emerging from a fiber lead to different degrees of
coupling loss. a) when all modes are equally excited, the output beam fills the entire output NA. b)
for a steady state modal distribution, only the equilibrium NA is filled by the output beam.
 Splices and Connectors
• In fiber-optic systems, the losses from splices and
connections can be more than in the cable itself
• Losses result from:
– Axial or angular misalignment
– Air gaps between the fibers
– Rough surfaces at the ends of the fibers

Fiber-Optic Connectors
 Fiber Splicers

Fusion Splice- Permanent Solution

• Uses an electric arc to weld two fibers together
• Computer controlled alignment of fibers
• Losses in the order of 0.05 dB
• No return reflections

Mechanical Splice

• Easily applied in the field

• Losses in the order of 0.1-0.2 dB
• Can be reusable
 Fiber-Optic Connectors
• Coupling the fiber to sources and detectors creates losses as well,
especially when it involves mismatches in numerical aperture or in
the size of optical fibers
• Good connections are more critical with single-mode fiber, due to its
smaller diameter and numerical aperture
• A splice is a permanent connection and a connector is removable
 Types of Connectors
 Basically there are four types of Fiber optic connectors:
 Butt Joint.
 Resilient ferrule.
 Grooved plate hybrids.
 Expanded beam.
Butt Joint and Expanded Beam

Straight sleeve Tapered sleeve

 Butt Joint Connectors
• Butt joint connectors employ a metal, ceramic or
molded plastic ferrule for each fiber and a precision
sleeve into which the ferrule fit.
• The fiber is epoxied into a precision hole which has
been drilled into the ferrule.
• They are of two type: Straight Sleeve and Tapered
Sleeve.
• In Straight sleeve • In tapered sleeve, it uses a
connector, the length of tapered sleeve to accept
the sleeve and a guide and guide tapered ferrules.
• Again the sleeve length
ring on the ferrules
determine the end and guide rings maintain a
given fiber-end separation.
separation of fibers.
 Expanded beam connector
 It employs lenses on the ends of the fibers.
 These lenses either collimate the light from
transmitting fiber or focus the expanded
beam onto the core of the receiving filter.
 Fiber to lens distance = focal length of lens.

 Advantages:
• Connector is less dependent on lateral
alignments.
• Beam splitters and switches can be easily
inserted into expanded beam between fiber
ends.
Mechanical Misalignment Losses

Lateral (axial) misalignment loss is a dominant

Mechanical loss.

1/ 2
d   d  
2
Acomm 2 d
 F ,step   arccos  1    
a 2
 2a a   2a  
 Longitudinal offset effect & Fiber related losses

Losses due to differences in the geometry and waveguide characteristics

of the fibers
aR
LF (a )  10 log( ) for a R a E
aE
NA R
LF (a )  20 log( ) for NA R  NA E
NA E
E & R subscripts refer to emitting and receiving fibers.
Fiber end face

Fiber end defects

Fiber splicing

Fusion Splicing
V-groove optical fiber splicing
Elastic tube Splice
 Optical Fiber Connectors
• Some of the principal requirements of a good connector design are as
follows:
1- low coupling losses
2- Interchangeability
Connectors of the same type must be compatible from one
manufacturer to another
3- Ease of assembly
Connector loss should be fairly insensitive to the assembly skill
of the technician
4- Low environmental sensitivity
Conditions like temperature, moisture and dust should have small
effect on connector loss variations
5- Low-cost and reliable construction
6- Ease of connection