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01 IntroDigitalCircuits

The document outlines a course on Digital Logic Design, using 'Introduction to Logic Design' by Alan B. Marcovitz as the textbook. It covers fundamental concepts such as number systems, Boolean algebra, circuit design, and the digitization of analog signals. The course aims to equip students with the skills to design and analyze digital circuits and systems, emphasizing the importance of digital technology in various applications.

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SyedaDF Ikram
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
23 views46 pages

01 IntroDigitalCircuits

The document outlines a course on Digital Logic Design, using 'Introduction to Logic Design' by Alan B. Marcovitz as the textbook. It covers fundamental concepts such as number systems, Boolean algebra, circuit design, and the digitization of analog signals. The course aims to equip students with the skills to design and analyze digital circuits and systems, emphasizing the importance of digital technology in various applications.

Uploaded by

SyedaDF Ikram
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Introduction to Digital Circuits

CSC 1074
Digital Logic Design
Which Book will be Used?

 Introduction to Logic Design

 Alan B. Marcovitz

 Third Edition

 McGraw Hill

 2010
What will I Learn in this Course?
 Towards the end of this course, you should be able to:
 Represent numbers and perform arithmetic in various number systems.

 Understand the basic identities of Boolean algebra and perform algebraic


manipulations of Boolean expressions.

 Simplify functions using the K-map method.

 Design efficient combinational circuits utilizing basic functional blocks such


as multiplexors, encoders, decoders, adders, and comparators.

 Analyze and design efficient Mealy and Moore sequential circuits.

 Model simple combinational and sequential circuits using Verilog HDL and
use tools to simulate and verify correctness of design.

 Design registers and counters and understand their applications.


Is it Worth the Effort?
 Absolutely!

 Digital circuits are employed in the design of:

 Digital computers

 Data communication

 Digital phones

 Digital cameras

 Digital TVs, etc.

 This course provides the fundamental concepts and the basic


tools for the design of digital circuits and systems
Presentation Outline

 Analog versus Digital Circuits

 Digitization of Analog Signals

 Binary Numbers and Number Systems

 Number System Conversions

 Representing Fractions

 Binary Codes
Analog versus Digital
 Analog means continuous
 Analog parameters have continuous range of values
 Example: temperature is an analog parameter
 Temperature increases/decreases continuously
 Other analog parameters?
 Sound, speed, voltage, current, time

 Digital means discrete using numerical digits


 Digital parameters have fixed set of discrete values
 Example: month number  {1, 2, 3, …, 12}, month cannot be 1.5!
 Other digital parameters?
 Alphabet letters, ten decimal digits, twenty-four hours, sixty minutes
Analog versus Digital System
 Are computers analog or digital systems?

Computer are digital systems

 Which is easier to design an analog or a digital system?

Digital systems are easier to design, because they deal with a


limited set of values rather than an infinitely large range of
continuous values

 The world around us is analog

 It is common to convert analog parameters into digital form

 This process is called digitization


Digitization of Analog Signals
 Digitization is converting an analog signal into digital form

 Example: consider digitizing an analog voltage signal

 Digitized output is limited to four values = {V1,V2,V3,V4}

Voltage

Time
Digitization of Analog Signals – cont’d
Voltage

Time
Voltage

Time

 Some loss of accuracy, why?


 How to improve accuracy? Add more voltage values
ADC and DAC Converters
 Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
input analog
signals
 Produces digitized version of analog signals Analog-to-Digital
Converter (ADC)
 Analog input => Digital output input digital
signals

 Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) Digital System

 Regenerate analog signal from digital form output digital


signals

 Digital input => Analog output Digital-to-Analog


Converter (DAC)
output analog
 Our focus is on digital systems only signals

 Both input and output to a digital system are digital signals


Next . . .

 Analog versus Digital Circuits

 Digitization of Analog Signals

 Binary Numbers and Number Systems

 Number System Conversions

 Representing Fractions

 Binary Codes
How do Computers Represent Digits?
 Binary digits (0 and 1) are the simplest to represent
 Using electric voltage

Voltage Level
High = 1
 Used in processors and digital circuits
 High voltage = 1, Low voltage = 0 Unused

 Using electric charge Low = 0

 Used in memory cells


 Charged memory cell = 1, discharged memory cell = 0
 Using magnetic field
 Used in magnetic disks, magnetic polarity indicates 1 or 0
 Using light
 Used in optical disks, optical lens can sense the light or not
Binary Numbers
 Each binary digit (called a bit) is either 1 or 0

 Bits have no inherent meaning, they can represent …

 Unsigned and signed integers

 Fractions Most Least


Significant Bit Significant Bit
 Characters
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
 Images, sound, etc. 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
 Bit Numbering

 Least significant bit (LSB) is rightmost (bit 0)

 Most significant bit (MSB) is leftmost (bit 7 in an 8-bit number)


Decimal Value of Binary Numbers
 Each bit represents a power of 2

 Every binary number is a sum of powers of 2

 Decimal Value = (dn-1  2n-1) + ... + (d1  21) + (d0  20)

 Binary (10011101)2 = 27 + 24 + 23 + 22 + 1 = 157

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Some common
powers of 2
Positional Number Systems
Different Representations of Natural Numbers

XXVII Roman numerals (not positional)

27 Radix-10 or decimal number (positional)

110112 Radix-2 or binary number (also positional)

Fixed-radix positional representation with n digits

Number N in radix r = (dn–1dn–2 . . . d1d0)r

Nr Value = dn–1×r n–1 + dn–2×r n–2 + … + d1×r + d0


1×24 + 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×2 + 1 = 27
Examples: (11011)2 =
2×83 + 1×82 + 0×8 + 7 = 1095
(2107)8 =
Convert Decimal to Binary
 Repeatedly divide the decimal integer by 2
 Each remainder is a binary digit in the translated value
 Example: Convert 3710 to Binary

least significant bit

37 = (100101)2

most significant bit

stop when quotient is zero


Decimal to Binary Conversion
 N = (dn-1  2n-1) + ... + (d1  21) + (d0  20)
 Dividing N by 2 we first obtain
 Quotient1 = (dn-1  2n-2) + … + (d2  2) + d1

 Remainder1 = d0

 Therefore, first remainder is least significant bit of binary number

 Dividing first quotient by 2 we first obtain


 Quotient2 = (dn-1  2n-3) + … + (d3  2) + d2

 Remainder2 = d1

 Repeat dividing quotient by 2


 Stop when new quotient is equal to zero
 Remainders are the bits from least to most significant bit
Popular Number Systems
 Binary Number System: Radix = 2
 Only two digit values: 0 and 1
 Numbers are represented as 0s and 1s
 Octal Number System: Radix = 8
 Eight digit values: 0, 1, 2, …, 7
 Decimal Number System: Radix = 10
 Ten digit values: 0, 1, 2, …, 9
 Hexadecimal Number Systems: Radix = 16
 Sixteen digit values: 0, 1, 2, …, 9, A, B, …, F
 A = 10, B = 11, …, F = 15
 Octal and Hexadecimal numbers can be converted easily to
Binary and vice versa
Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
 Octal = Radix 8 Decimal Binary Octal Hex
Radix 10 Radix 2 Radix 8 Radix 16
 Only eight digits: 0 to 7 0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
 Digits 8 and 9 not used 2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
 Hexadecimal = Radix 16 4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
 16 digits: 0 to 9, A to F 7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
 A=10, B=11, …, F=15 9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
 First 16 decimal values 11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
(0 to15) and their values 13 1101 15 D
in binary, octal and hex. 14 1110 16 E
Memorize table 15 1111 17 F
Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal
 Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal are related:

Radix 16 = 24 and Radix 8 = 23


 Hexadecimal digit = 4 bits and Octal digit = 3 bits

 Starting from least-significant bit, group each 4 bits into a hex


digit or each 3 bits into an octal digit
 Example: Convert 32-bit number into octal and hex

3 5 3 0 5 5 2 3 6 2 4 Octal
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 32-bit binary
E B 1 6 A 7 9 4 Hexadecimal
Converting Octal & Hex to Decimal

 Octal to Decimal: N8 = (dn-1  8n-1) +... + (d1  8) + d0

 Hex to Decimal: N16 = (dn-1  16n-1) +... + (d1  16) + d0

 Examples:

(7204)8 = (7  83) + (2  82) + (0  8) + 4 = 3716

(3BA4)16 = (3  163) + (11  162) + (10  16) + 4 = 15268


Converting Decimal to Hexadecimal
 Repeatedly divide the decimal integer by 16

 Each remainder is a hex digit in the translated value

 Example: convert 422 to hexadecimal

least significant digit

most significant digit

422 = (1A6)16 stop when


quotient is zero

 To convert decimal to octal divide by 8 instead of 16


Important Properties
 How many possible digits can we have in Radix r ?
r digits: 0 to r – 1
 What is the result of adding 1 to the largest digit in Radix r?
Since digit r is not represented, result is (10)r in Radix r

Examples: 12 + 1 = (10)2 78 + 1 = (10)8

910 + 1 = (10)10 F16 + 1 = (10)16


 What is the largest value using 3 digits in Radix r?
In binary: (111)2 = 23 – 1 In Radix r:
In octal: (777)8 = 83 – 1 largest value = r3 – 1

In decimal: (999)10 = 103 – 1


Important Properties – cont’d

 How many possible values can be represented …

Using n binary digits? 2n values: 0 to 2n – 1

Using n octal digits 8n values: 0 to 8n – 1

Using n decimal digits? 10n values: 0 to 10n – 1

Using n hexadecimal digits 16n values: 0 to 16n – 1

Using n digits in Radix r ? rn values: 0 to rn – 1


Next . . .

 Analog versus Digital Circuits

 Digitization of Analog Signals

 Binary Numbers and Number Systems

 Number System Conversions

 Representing Fractions

 Binary Codes
Representing Fractions
 A number Nr in radix r can also have a fraction part:

Nr = dn-1dn-2 … d1d0 . d-1 d-2 … d-m+1 d-m 0 ≤ di < r

Integer Part Fraction Part


Radix Point
 The number Nr represents the value:

Nr = dn-1 × rn-1 + … + d1 × r + d0 + (Integer Part)


d-1 × r -1 + d-2 × r -2 … + d-m × r –m (Fraction Part)
i = n-1 j = -1

Nr = å
i=0
di × ri + å
j = -m
dj × rj
Examples of Numbers with Fractions
 (2409.87)10 = 2×103 + 4×102 + 9 + 8×10-1 + 7×10-2

 (1101.1001)2 = 23 + 22 + 20 + 2-1 + 2-4 = 13.5625

 (703.64)8 = 7×82 + 3 + 6×8-1 + 4×8-2 = 451.8125

 (A1F.8)16 = 10×162 + 16 + 15 + 8×16-1 = 2591.5

= 4×52 + 2×5 + 3 + 5-1 = 113.2


 (423.1)5

Digit 6 is NOT allowed in radix 6


 (263.5)6
Converting Decimal Fraction to Binary
 Convert N = 0.6875 to Radix 2
 Solution: Multiply N by 2 repeatedly & collect integer bits
Multiplication New Fraction Bit
0.6875 × 2 = 1.375 0.375 1 First fraction bit
0.375 × 2 = 0.75 0.75 0
0.75 × 2 = 1.5 0.5 1
0.5 × 2 = 1.0 0.0 1 Last fraction bit

 Stop when new fraction = 0.0, or when enough fraction bits


are obtained
 Therefore, N = 0.6875 = (0.1011)2
 Check (0.1011)2 = 2-1 + 2-3 + 2-4 = 0.6875
Converting Fraction to any Radix r
 To convert fraction N to any radix r

Nr = (0.d-1 d-2 … d-m)r = d-1 × r -1 + d-2 × r -2 … + d-m × r –m

 Multiply N by r to obtain d-1

Nr × r = d-1 + d-2 × r -1 … + d-m × r –m+1

 The integer part is the digit d-1 in radix r

 The new fraction is d-2 × r -1 … + d-m × r –m+1

 Repeat multiplying the new fractions by r to obtain d-2 d-3 ...

 Stop when new fraction becomes 0.0 or enough fraction digits


are obtained
More Conversion Examples
 Convert N = 139.6875 to Octal (Radix 8)
 Solution: N = 139 + 0.6875 (split integer from fraction)
 The integer and fraction parts are converted separately

Division Quotient Remainder Multiplication New Fraction Digit


139 / 8 17 3 0.6875 × 8 = 5.5 0.5 5
17 / 8 2 1 0.5 × 8 = 4.0 0.0 4
2/8 0 2

 Therefore, 139 = (213)8 and 0.6875 = (0.54)8


 Now, join the integer and fraction parts with radix point
N = 139.6875 = (213.54)8
Conversion Procedure to Radix r
 To convert decimal number N (with fraction) to radix r
 Convert the Integer Part
 Repeatedly divide the integer part of number N by the radix r and save
the remainders. The integer digits in radix r are the remainders in
reverse order of their computation. If radix r > 10, then convert all
remainders > 10 to digits A, B, … etc.

 Convert the Fractional Part


 Repeatedly multiply the fraction of N by the radix r and save the
integer digits that result. The fraction digits in radix r are the integer
digits in order of their computation. If the radix r > 10, then convert all
digits > 10 to A, B, … etc.

 Join the result together with the radix point


Simplified Conversions
 Converting fractions between Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal
can be simplified
 Starting at the radix pointing, the integer part is converted
from right to left and the fractional part is converted from left
to right
 Group 4 bits into a hex digit or 3 bits into an octal digit
integer: right to left fraction: left to right

7 2 6 1 3 . 2 4 7 4 5 2 Octal
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 . 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Binary
7 5 8 B . 5 3 C A 8 Hexadecimal

 Use binary to convert between octal and hexadecimal


Important Properties of Fractions
 How many fractional values exist with m fraction bits?
2m fractions, because each fraction bit can be 0 or 1
 What is the largest fraction value if m bits are used?
Largest fraction value = 2-1 + 2-2 + … + 2-m = 1 – 2-m
Because if you add 2-m to largest fraction you obtain 1
 In general, what is the largest fraction value if m fraction digits
are used in radix r?
Largest fraction value = (r – 1) × (r -1 + r -2 + … + r -m) = 1 – r -m
For decimal, largest fraction value = 1 – 10-m
For hexadecimal, largest fraction value = 1 – 16-m
Next . . .

 Analog versus Digital Circuits

 Digitization of Analog Signals

 Binary Numbers and Number Systems

 Number System Conversions

 Representing Fractions

 Binary Codes
Binary Codes
 How to represent characters, colors, etc?
 Define the set of all represented elements
 Assign a unique binary code to each element of the set
 Given n bits, a binary code is a mapping from the set of
elements to a subset of the 2n binary numbers
 Coding Numeric Data (example: coding decimal digits)
 Coding must simplify common arithmetic operations

 Tight relation to binary numbers

 Coding Non-Numeric Data (example: coding colors)


 More flexible codes since arithmetic operations are not applied
Example of Coding Non-Numeric Data

 Suppose we want to code 7 colors of the rainbow

 As a minimum, we need 3 bits to define 7 unique values

 3 bits define 8 possible combinations


Color 3-bit code
 Only 7 combinations are needed Red 000
Orange 001
 Code 111 is not used
Yellow 010
 Other assignments are also possible Green 011
Blue 100
Indigo 101
Violet 110
Minimum Number of Bits Required

 Given a set of M elements to be represented by a binary code,


the minimum number of bits, n, should satisfy:

2(n - 1) < M ≤ 2n

n = log2 M where x , called the ceiling function, is the


integer greater than or equal to x
 How many bits are required to represent 10 decimal digits with
a binary code?
 Answer: log2 10 = 4 bits can represent 10 decimal digits
Decimal Codes
 Binary number system is most natural for computers

 But people are used to the decimal number system

 Must convert decimal numbers to binary, do arithmetic on


binary numbers, then convert back to decimal
 To simplify conversions, decimal codes can be used

 Define a binary code for each decimal digit

 Since 10 decimal digits exit, a 4-bit code is used

 But a 4-bit code gives 16 unique combinations

 10 combinations are used and 6 will be unused


Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
 Simplest binary code for decimal digits

 Only encodes ten digits from 0 to 9 Decimal BCD


0 0000
 BCD is a weighted code 1 0001
2 0010
 The weights are 8,4,2,1 3 0011
4 0100
 Same weights as a binary number 5 0101
6 0110
 There are six invalid code words
7 0111
8 1000
1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111 9 1001
1010
 Example on BCD coding:
Unused ···
1111
13  (0001 0011)BCD
Warning: Conversion or Coding?

 Do NOT mix up conversion of a decimal number to a binary


number with coding a decimal number with a binary code

 1310 = (1101)2 This is conversion

 13  (0001 0011)BCD This is coding

 In general, coding requires more bits than conversion

 A number with n decimal digits is coded with 4n bits in BCD


Other Decimal Codes
 BCD, 5421, 2421, and 8 4 -2 -1 are weighted codes
 Excess-3 is not a weighted code
 2421, 8 4 -2 -1, and Excess-3 are self complementary codes
BCD 5421 2421 8 4 -2 -1 Excess-3
Decimal
8421 code code code code
0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011
1 0001 0001 0001 0111 0100
2 0010 0010 0010 0110 0101
3 0011 0011 0011 0101 0110
4 0100 0100 0100 0100 0111
5 0101 1000 1011 1011 1000
6 0110 1001 1100 1010 1001
7 0111 1010 1101 1001 1010
8 1000 1011 1110 1000 1011
9 1001 1100 1111 1111 1100
Unused ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
Character Codes
 Character sets
 Standard ASCII: 7-bit character codes (0 – 127)
 Extended ASCII: 8-bit character codes (0 – 255)
 Unicode: 16-bit character codes (0 – 65,535)
 Unicode standard represents a universal character set
 Defines codes for characters used in all major languages
 Each character is encoded as 16 bits
 UTF-8: variable-length encoding used in HTML
 Encodes all Unicode characters
 Uses 1 byte for ASCII, but multiple bytes for other characters

 Null-terminated String
 Array of characters followed by a NULL character
Printable ASCII Codes
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
2 space ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . /
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ?
4 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
5 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _
6 ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
7 p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~ DEL

 Examples:
 ASCII code for space character = 20 (hex) = 32 (decimal)
 ASCII code for 'L' = 4C (hex) = 76 (decimal)
 ASCII code for 'a' = 61 (hex) = 97 (decimal)
Control Characters
 The first 32 characters of ASCII table are used for control
 Control character codes = 00 to 1F (hexadecimal)
 Not shown in previous slide
 Examples of Control Characters
 Character 0 is the NULL character  used to terminate a string
 Character 9 is the Horizontal Tab (HT) character
 Character 0A (hex) = 10 (decimal) is the Line Feed (LF)
 Character 0D (hex) = 13 (decimal) is the Carriage Return (CR)
 The LF and CR characters are used together
 They advance the cursor to the beginning of next line

 One control character appears at end of ASCII table


 Character 7F (hex) is the Delete (DEL) character
Parity Bit & Error Detection Codes
 Binary data are typically transmitted between computers

 Because of noise, a corrupted bit will change value

 To detect errors, extra bits are added to each data value

 Parity bit: is used to make the number of 1’s odd or even

 Even parity: number of 1’s in the transmitted data is even

 Odd parity: number of 1’s in the transmitted data is odd

7-bit ASCII Character With Even Parity With Odd Parity


‘A’ = 1000001 0 1000001 1 1000001
‘T’ = 1010100 1 1010100 0 1010100
Detecting Errors
7-bit ASCII character + 1 Parity bit
Sender Receiver
Sent ‘A’ = 01000001, Received ‘A’ = 01000101

 Suppose we are transmitting 7-bit ASCII characters


 A parity bit is added to each character to make it 8 bits
 Parity can detect all single-bit errors
 If even parity is used and a single bit changes, it will change the parity
to odd, which will be detected at the receiver end
 The receiver end can detect the error, but cannot correct it because it
does not know which bit is erroneous
 Can also detect some multiple-bit errors
 Error in an odd number of bits

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