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Electrical material
Chapter One: Conductivity
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OF/FTI/ALL /18 Issue No: 1

PPT 1
 Introduction
CONDUCTING MATERIAL:
 Materials which are used commercially for conducting electricity
can be classed as conducting materials and materials which are used
for preventing the flow of electricity can be classed as non-conducting
or insulating materials.
 Conducting materials have very low values of resistivity as
compared to insulating material.
Examples: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold, and Electrolyte.
To determine the extent to which a material has conducting or
insulating property, we should know the value of its resistivity.
Conducting materials can further be subdivided into low resistivity
and high resistivity materials.
 Introduction
Electrical Conduction:
Electrical conduction is the movement of electrically charged
particles through a transmission medium (electrical conductor).
The movement of charge constitutes an electric current. This charge
transport may reflect a potential difference due to an electric field, or
a concentration gradient in carrier density.
The physical parameters governing this transport depend upon the
material.
Conduction in metals and resistors follows Ohm's Law. This states that
the current is proportional to the applied electric field.
 Introduction
Equation of motion of an electron
Electric current:

The current is defined as the rate of flow of charges across any cross
sectional area of a conductor.

If a net charge q passes through any cross section of a conductor in

time t, then the current I = q / t, where q is in coulomb and t is in
second. The current I is expressed in ampere.
 Introduction
Equation of motion of an electron
Current Density:

Current density at a point is defined as the quantity of charge

passing per unit time through unit area, taken perpendicular to the
direction of flow of charge at that point.

The current density J for a current I flowing across a conductor

having an area of cross section A is J= I/A

Current density in terms of conductivity σ,

J=σE

or its reciprocal resistivity ρ:

 Introduction
Equation of motion of an electron
Bound Electrons:

Electrons which are bound to their nuclei is called bound electron.

Free Electrons:Electrons which moves freely or randomly in all

directions in the absence of external field.
 Introduction
Equation of motion of an electron
Drift velocity:

If no electric field is applied on a conductor, the free electrons move

in random directions. They collide with each other and also with the
positive ions. Since the motion is completely random, average velocity
in any direction is zero

Absence of electric field, E=0

 Introduction
Equation of motion of an electron
Drift velocity:

If a constant electric field is established inside a conductor, the

electrons experience a force F = eE due to which they move in the
direction opposite to direction of the field.

These electrons undergo frequent collisions with positive ions. In

each such collision, direction of motion of electrons undergoes
random changes.
 Introduction
Equation of motion of an electron
Drift velocity:

As a result, in addition to the random motion, the electrons are

subjected to a very slow directional motion. This motion is called drift
and the average velocity of this motion is called drift velocity V d.
 Introduction
Equation of motion of an electron
Drift velocity:

Drift Velocity is defined as the velocity with which the free electrons
get drifted towards the positive terminal when an electric field is
applied.

If τ is the average time between two successive collisions and the
acceleration experienced by the electron be a, then the drift velocity is
given by,

Vd = aτ ---------------1

According to Newton’s second law

Introduction
 Introduction
Equation of motion of an electron
Relation between Current and Drift velocity:
Consider a conductor XY of length L and area of cross section A. An
electric field E is applied between its ends. Let n be the number of free
electrons per unit volume. The free electrons move towards the left
with a constant drift velocity Vd.

The number of conduction electrons in the conductor = nAL

The charge of an electron = e
The total charge passing through the conductor q = (nAL) e
The time in which the charges pass through the conductor
t = L / Vd
Introduction
 Introduction
Electron Theory of metals:
The electron theory of metals explain the following concepts
Structural, electrical and thermal properties of materials.
Elasticity, cohesive force and bonding in solids.
Behavior of conductors, semi conductors, insulators etc.
1. Classical Free electron theory:
Proposed by Drude and Lorentz in 1900.
A metal consists of electrons which are free to move like molecules of a gas in
a container.
Mutual repulsion between electrons is ignored, so the potential energy is
taken as zero.
Total energy of an electron is equal to its kinetic energy.
Electron moves in Ionic potential
It obeys the laws of Classical Mechanics and it uses Boltzmann Statistics
 Introduction
Electron Theory of metals:
2. Quantum Free electron theory:

Proposed by Sommerfeld in 1928.

He retained the concept of Classical free electron theory but applied
to Quantum mechanics coupled with Fermi Dirac Statistics.

Specific heat, Thermionic emission, electrical and Thermal

conductivity were calculated quite satisfactorily by replacing the ionic
potential with constant potential.

It obeys the Quantum laws.

 Introduction
Electron Theory of metals:
3.Brillouin Zone theory:
Proposed by Bloch in 1928.

It explains that the electron moves in a periodic potential.

The wave function of a conduction electron in the periodic potential

can be described in the form of plane wave. The wave function is
called as Bloch wave.

It also explains the mechanism of semi conductivity

Based on Bloch theory, Wilson in 1931 was able to describe a band

theory, which embraces Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators
 Introduction
Classical Free Electron Theory:
Postulates of Classical free electron theory:
All the atoms are composed of atoms. Each atom have central
nucleus around which there are revolving electrons.
The electrons are free to move in all possible directions about the
whole volume of metals.
In the absence of an electric field the electrons move in random
directions making collisions from time to time with positive ions which
are fixed in the lattice or other free electrons. All the collisions are
elastic i.e.; no loss of energy.
When an external field is applied the free electrons are slowly
drifting towards the positive potential.
Since the electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas they obey
classical kinetic theory of gasses.
Classical free electrons in the metal obey Maxwell-Boltzmann
statistics,proposed by Bloch in 1928.
 Introduction
Classical Free Electron Theory:
Drawbacks:
According to this theory, K/σT = L, a constant (Wiedemann-Franz
law) for all temperatures. But this is not true at low temperatures.
Where K=Thermal conductivity, σ = Electrical conductivity, T=
Temperature and L=Lorentz number.
The theoretically predicted value of specific heat of a metal does not
agree with the experimentally obtained value.
It cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and
insulators properly.
Different types of magnetisms could not be explained satisfactorily
by this theory.
It cannot explain the Compton effect, Photo-electric effect.
theory
electron theory
Uses of classical free electron
theory
 conductivity based on Drude
and Lorentz thory

When an electric field (E) is applied to a conductor the free electrons

are accelerated and give rise to current (I) which flows in the
direction of electric filed flows of charges is given in terms of current
density.
Electrical conductivity, σ , is defined as the rate of charge flow
across unit area in a conductor per unit potential (voltage) gradient.
High conductivity of metals is due to the presence of free or
conduction electrons
Electrical conductivity is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity
…Expression for electrical
conductivity
…Expression for electrical
conductivity

See next slide

Relationship between current and
drift velocity
Consider the number of free charges in a segment of wire shown in
figure.
All the charges in the shaded volume of this wire move out in a time
t, having a drift velocity of magnitude vd = x/t.
The number of free charges per unit volume is given the symbol n.
The shaded segment has a volume Ax, so that the number of free
charges in it is nAx.
The charge ΔQ in this segment is thus qnAx
For electrons, q is e= −1.60 × 10−19 C
Current is charge moved per unit time
If all the original charges move out of this segment in time Δt, the
current is
Thermal Conductivity (K):
The ability of the material to conduct heat is known as
thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity also depends on free electrons only.
Suppose now that the metal has different temperatures at its
ends. The electrons are moving slightly faster at the hot end
and slower at the cool end.
The faster electrons transmit energy to the cooler, slower
ones by colliding with them, and just as for electrical
conductivity, the longer the mean free path, the faster the
energy can be transmitted, i.e., the greater the thermal
conductivity
Thermal Conductivity (K):
Thermal Conductivity (K):
Resistivity & Conductivity
 materials
Ohm’s law relates the potential difference with the
electrical resistance and the electrical current, I as V=IR
The resistance R is the resistance of the material through
which the current is passing. The value of R is influenced
by specimen configuration (size, shape); materials
properties;
where l is the length (cm) of the resistor, A is the
cross-sectional area (cm2) of the resistor. The ρ
is the resistivity or Electrical resistivity (Ohm.cm
or Ω.cm).
Conducting Materials
Metals are good conductors, typically having
conductivities on the order of 107( Ω-m)-1.
At the other extreme are materials with very
low conductivities, ranging between 10-10
and 10-20 (Ω m)-1; these are electrical
insulators.
Materials with intermediate conductivities,
generally from 10-4 to 104 (Ω-m)-1, are termed
semiconductors.
materials
Effect of Temperature on Resistivity:
 The most important factor which affects the value of resistivity is the temperature.
 The resistance of most of the conducting material increases with temperature.
 The change in resistance of a material per ohm per degree change in temperature is
called the "temperature coefficient of resistance of that material.

𝑅𝑡=𝑅0 (1+∝𝑡) equ 1

Where, 𝑅𝑡 and 𝑅0 are respectively the resistances of the conductor at t degree and zero
degree centigrade and ∝ the temperature coefficient of resistance
  If the resistance of the same material at any other temperature 𝑡1 degree
centigrade be 𝑅𝑡1 then according to equ 1 above

𝑅𝑡1=𝑅0 (1+∝𝑡1 ) equ 2

Dividing expression (equ 2) by expression (equ 1) we ger

equ 3

 This means that the resistance at any temperature 𝑡1 degrees can be calculated if the
resistance at t degrees is known.
 The resistance of a conductor changes with temperature according to the law
Expression (equ 3) is very important.
 It enables the designer of electrical equipment to determine by calculation the 12 R
losses in the windings of equipment like motors and transformers.
 For this, he must know the resistance of the winding at the operating temperature.
 Assuming that the operating temperature of a transformer winding is 65 degrees

centigrade above the ambient temperature (say of 30 0C) degrees centigrade, then t1 =

30 degrees C and t2 = 95 degrees C.

 The value of resistance R, at ambient temperature (Let at 30 degrees C) is generally
known to the designer. He can find from data books the value of the temperature
coefficient and then calculate the resistance R at the operating temperature (i.e., at 95
degrees C) by applying expression (equ 3)
 The relationship between temperature coefficient of resistance with change in
temperature can also be found out by following ways the same procedures.
 Let us assume that R1. R2, and R3 be the resistance of a conductor at t 1,t2 and t3
respectively then,
Compare
the two
equations
Effect of alloying on resistivity:
 Alloying is another factor which affects the resistivity of a material.
 By adding some impurities, (a small percentage of some other material) to
a metal, its resistivity can be increased
 Alloys have higher resistivity than the pure base metal.
 At the same time, when a metal is alloyed, it also acquires properties like
higher mechanical strength which are needed for certain applications.
 For example, when copper is alloyed with zinc, the alloyed material is
called brass (60 % copper, 40 %zinc). By alloying copper with zinc its
resistivity is increased i.e. conductivity is decreased by about 4 times.
 But the tensile strength of brass is much more than that of copper and
therefore may be used for making structural products such as rods, shafts,
heavy plates, plug point, socket outlets, knife switches etc. where high
strength and hardness are usually desirable
Effect of mechanical stressing on resistivity:
 The resistivity of a material also changes under the influence of mechanical treatment
 The fabrication of conductor from the ingot to the final stage comprises initially hot
working and finally cold-drawing
 Cold-working operation (stressing) distorts the crystal structure of the metal.
 This generally tends to harden the material increase its tensile strength and increase
slightly its resistivity
 The increase in tensile strength is very useful for many purposes such as overhead
conductor.
 That is why many types of conductors are finally drawn in cold stage in which case they
are identified as hard drawn Although mechanical stressing increases the resistivity i.e.
decreases the conductivity,
 annealing (Heat treatment process) restores the electrical conductivity by establishing
regularity in crystal structure.
 Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high
resistivity materials

Low resistivity material: -

 Low resistivity materials are used in house wiring, as conductors for power
transmission and distribution, in the windings of transformer and machines like
motors and generators.
 In fact, low resistivity materials are used in all such applications where power loss
and voltage drop should be low.
 Copper and aluminium are examples of commercially acceptable low resistivity
material.
 Silver has lower resistivity than copper but because of its prohibitive cost its use
commercially as a conductor is not feasible.
 A low resistivity material, besides possessing low value of resistivity should also
possess the following additional properties:
 Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high
resistivity materials

Low temperature coefficient:

 This means that the change of resistance with change in temperature should be low.
This is necessary to avoid variation in voltage drop and power loss with changes in
temperature.
 For example, the resistance of transmission lines which are very long will increase
when ex-posed to hot summer sun. This will cause increase in voltage drop and
power loss in the transmission line.
 The windings of electrical machines and apparatus become hot when loaded.
 This causes temperature rises and if the conducting material of the winding has high
temperature coefficient of resistance, the voltage drops and power loss in the
winding will be high.
 Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high
resistivity materials

Sufficient mechanical strength:

 The overhead line conductors used for transmission and distribution of electrical
power are subject to stresses due to wind and their own weight.
 The conducting materials used for the windings of transformers, motors and
generators develop mechanical forces when loaded which can become very large if a
high current flows due to a short circuit
 Also, when the coils for the windings of such equipment are made on former the
conducting material is subject to mechanical stresses.
 Therefore, to with stand the mechanical stress, developed in the above mentioned
application the conducting material should possess sufficient mechanical strength.
Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high
resistivity materials

Ductility:
 Ductility is that property of a material which allows it to be drawn out into
a wire.
 Conductors are required in different sizes and shapes
 In some applications round wire section is used, while in others
rectangular wire section is used
 The conducting material should be ductile enough to enable itself being
drawn into different sizes and shapes.
 Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high
resistivity materials

Solderability:
 Conductors have often to be jointed. The joint should offer minimum contact
resistance. A simple joint would be to twist the conductor with the material to
which it is to be jointed. But this gives high contact resistance.
 Minimum contact resistance results if the joint is soldered A material do not tend
themselves to proper soldering. So while selecting conducting material, this point
should be kept in view
 Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high
resistivity materials

Resistance to corrosion:
 The conducting material should be such the it is not corroded when used in
out-door atmosphere.
 Note that the reader should not lead himself to believe that all conducting
materials should possess all the above mentioned properties.
 Depending upon the applications an appropriate material should be chosen
which may not have all the above properties but those which the particular
applications called for.
 Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high
resistivity materials

High resistivity materials:

 High resistivity materials are used for making resistance elements for heating devices,
starters for electric motor resistance used in precision measuring instruments, loading
resistances and rheostats and filaments for incandescent lamps.
 In fact, high resistivity materials are used in all such applications where a large value
of resistance is required
 If low resistivity materials were used for such application the length of the wire would
be too large which would increase to a large extent the of the equipment.
 A high resistivity material besides possessing high values of resistivity should also
posses the following additional properties for reasons mentioned against each.
Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high
resistivity materials
Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high
resistivity materials
 Examples

A heater element made of nichrome wire having resistivity equal to 100 x 10 -8 ohm metre.
The diameter of the wire is 0.4 mm
(a) Calculate the length of the wire required to get a resistance of 40 ohms and 1000 watts
(b) Calculate also the length required if the material of the element was copper having
same cross-sectional area. Assume resistivity of copper to be 1.732 x 10-8 ohm-metre
 Examples

Calculate the diameter of copper wire of length in meters used as winding material in a
temperature such that the resistance of the whole winding is 2 ohms. Calculate the
diameter of the wire if aluminum is to be used for the above winding, resistance remaining
the same.
Solution- We know:

a
Examples
Examples
2
Example-3: Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in copper
and current density in wire of diameter 0.16 cm which
carries a steady current of 10 A. Given n = 8.46 × 1028 m–3.
Example-4: A conducting rod contains 8.5 ×
1028 electrons/m3. Calculate its resistivity at room
temperature and also the mobility of electrons if the collision
time for electron scattering is 2 × 10–14 sec.
Low Resistivity Materials And Their Applications:-
Low Resistivity Materials And Their Applications:-
Low Resistivity Materials And Their Applications:-
Low Resistivity Materials And Their Applications:-
High Resistivity Materials And Their Applications:-
High Resistivity Materials And Their Applications:-
High Resistivity Materials And Their Applications:-
High Resistivity Materials And Their Applications:-
Band Theory
 Fermi-Dirac Distribution
Function
Fermi-Dirac distribution function represents the
probability of an electron occupying a given energy
level at absolute temperature and it is given by the
following formula. Where:
F(E) is Fermi function
K B is Boltzmann Constant
T is Temperature
Effect of temperature on Fermi
Function:
…Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function
Fermi Energy Level of Metal @
zero K

All the energy level above fermi level are completely empty
Fermi Energy Level of Metal >
zero K
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3
What is a superconductor?

 Superconductors are materials that conduct electricity with no resistance.

This means that, unlike the more familiar conductors such as copper or

steel, a superconductor can carry a current indefinitely without losing any

energy.

They also have several other very important properties, such as the fact

that no magnetic field can exist within a superconductor.

 Super Conductivity

A superconductor is an element or metallic alloy

which, when cooled to near absolute zero,
dramatically lose all electrical resistance. In
principle, superconductors can allow electrical
current to flow without any energy loss
Types I and II Superconductors
There are thirty pure metals which exhibit zero resistivity at
low temperatures and have the property of excluding
magnetic fields from the interior of the superconductor (
Meissner effect). They are called Type I superconductors. The
superconductivity exists only below their critical temperatures
and below a critical magnetic field strength. Type I
superconductors are well described by the BCS theory
(Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer) .

Starting in 1930 with lead-bismuth alloys, a number of alloys

were found which exhibited superconductivity; they are called
Type II superconductors. They were found to have much
higher critical fields and therefore could carry much higher
current densities while remaining in the superconducting
state.
Applications
1. Superconducting electronics applications
There are many thin film applications in ultra fast microelectronics or
instrumentation

2. Magnetically-Levitated Train (Maglev Train)

3. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Image)

4. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

 Assignment #1
1-Discuss a valance band, conduction band and forbidden gap

2-A conducting rod contains 8.5×10 28 electrons/m3. Calculate its

resistivity at room temperature and also the mobility of electrons if
the collision time for electron scattering is 2×10 –14 sec.

3-Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F(E)

for E – E F = 0.01 eV at 200K.
4-Using the Fermi function, evaluate the temperature at which there is
1% probability in a solid will have an energy 0.5 eV above EF of 5 eV.