Periodic Properties & Molecular Structure

1. Classification as s, p, d & f block elements

2. variation of atomic volume, atomic and ionic radii, ionization potential, electron affinity and
electronegativity along periods and groups,
3. Effective nuclear charge, penetration of orbitals (shielding and de-shielding), polarizability.
4. Crystal field theory and the energy level diagrams for transition metal ions and their magnetic
properties.
5. MO Theory and Energy level diagrams – Bonding and antibonding orbitals
6. Application of MO Theory to H2, He2, N2, O2, HF and CO.
 Modern Periodic Table

Modern periodic table is devised

by a Russian Chemist
Dmitri Mendeleev In 1869

The periodic table of elements is organized so that elements with similar electron configurations are near each
other. Elements in similar groups or columns can be categorized together into blocks based on which electron orbital
their outermost electrons (i.e., valence electrons) occupy. There are a total of 4 blocks for 4 different electron
orbitals: s, d, p, and f. Elements in the same block have their last valence electron occupying that same orbital.
 Structure of the Periodic Table

• The elements in the far left-hand column (Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs) are known
collectively as alkali metals.

• Similarly, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba are called alkaline earths, and F, Cl, Br, and I are
referred to as halogens.

• He, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe were discovered much later than most of the other elements,
and they have been named rare gases or noble gases.

• At the bottom of the periodic table, two important categories of elements are arranged
which are called as Lanthanides and Actinides.
 Classification as s, p, d & f block elements

The modern periodic table arranges elements

in two important ways:
horizontal rows of the table, called periods,
and the vertical columns, called groups.

The elements are divided into metals, nonmetals, and metalloids according to their physical and chemical properties.
The organization of elements into the form resembling the modern periodic table is accredited to Mendeleev.
s-block elements:
• s-block elements are the elements found in Group 1 and Group 2 on the periodic table.
• Group 1 are the alkali metals which have one valence electron. They have low ionization energies which
makes them very reactive.
• Group 2 is the alkali earth metals which have two valence electrons, filling their s sublevel. Because they
have 2 valence electrons they are less reactive than group 1.
• Hydrogen is a nonmetal grouped with the alkali metals because it has one electron in its valence shell.
p-block elements:
• p-block elements are those in which the last electron occupies p- orbitals and are found in groups
13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 (except helium).
•
• Because p-block orbitals can only hold a maximum of six electrons, p-block elements are classified
into six groups.

•Includes carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, halogens, and many other common elements.
•Interact with other chemicals by losing, gaining, or sharing the valence electrons.
•Mostly form covalent compounds (though the halogens form ionic compounds withs-block metals).
 d-block elements:

• D block elements are the elements that can be found from the third group to the twelfth group of the modern
periodic table.

• The valence electrons of these elements fall under the d orbital.

• d-block elements are also referred to as transition elements or transition metals.

• The first three rows of the d block elements which correspond to the 3d, 4d, and 5d orbitals, respectively are
given in the below article.

• “d-block elements” are defined as elements in which the last differentiating electron enters the d-orbitals of
the penultimate shell, i.e. (n–1) d where n is the last shell. These elements are often characterised by metallic
qualities such as malleability and ductility, strong electrical and thermal conductivities and high tensile
strength.
First row d-block elements, electronic configuration:

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
4s23d1 4s23d2 4s23d3 4s13d5 4s23d5 4s23d6 4s23d7 4s23d8 4s13d10 4s23d10
 f-Block elements
• The elements in which the last electron enters (n-2) f orbital are known as f-block elements. The last
electron enters the pre-penultimate shell.
• Depending upon whether the last electron enters a 4f orbital or a 5f orbital, the f–block elements have
been divided into two series as lanthanides and actinides.
• There are mainly two series in the f-block that are equivalent to filling up of 4f and 5f orbitals. The
elements include 4f series of Ce to Lu and 5f series of Th to Lr. 14 elements are there that fill up the ‘f’
orbital in each series.
• Classification of F-Block Elements
• Lanthanides and actinides are the two series of the f-block elements or inner transition elements.
• Lanthanide series: The first series of elements are the lanthanides which include elements with atomic
numbers from 57 to 71. These elements are non-radioactive (except for promethium). In the lanthanide
series the last electron gets into the 4f orbital.
• Actinide series: The second series of elements are actinides which include elements with atomic
numbers from 89 to 103. These elements are generally radioactive in nature. In the actinide series the
last electron gets into the 5f orbital.
 Periodic Properties
• The periodic table arranges the elements by periodic properties

• Elements tend to gain or lose valence electrons to achieve stable octet formation (Eg, Inert gases
or Noble gases)

• Electrons are added one at a time moving from left to right across a period. As this happens, the
electrons of the outermost shell experience increasingly strong nuclear attraction, so the electrons
become closer to the nucleus and more tightly bound to it.

• Moving down a column in the periodic table, the outermost electrons become less tightly bound
to the nucleus. This happens because the number of filled principal energy levels (which shield
the outermost electrons from attraction to the nucleus) increases downward within each group.

• Because of these trends, variation in elemental properties such as, atomic volume, atomic radius,
ionization potential, electron affinity and electronegativity varies along periods and groups.
 Atomic Size

• Size of the atoms increases when moving down a column on the periodic table. This is because in going down
a column, next higher main energy level (n) is reached and each energy level is further out from the nucleus –
that is, a bigger atomic radius.

• Atoms get smaller as you go across a row from left to right. As you go across rows, you are staying in the
same main energy level (n) so electrons are entering the atomic atmosphere at about the same distance.
However, as you go across, the nuclei are getting more and more positive (more protons) - therefore there is
more + to – attraction and the electron cloud is pulled in tighter and therefore a smaller radius.
Trends in Atomic Size
 Why do these trends exist?

• Atom size increases down a group because you keep moving to a new shell of electrons.

• It decreases across a period because you keep adding protons to the nucleus, which has a
bigger effect than adding an electron.

• The extra charge on the nucleus which draws the electrons inward resulting in smaller size for
the atoms.
• The trend of decrease in size of atoms, continues from left to right.

• Going down the group of elements (in any particular column) the atomic size increases.

• It may be explained in terms of a new electron shell being added, when we pass from one
element to another in a group.
 Ionic radius

• An ion is basically an atom with a positive or negative charge.

• The Ionic radius can be described as the distance between the nucleus of an ion and the
outermost shell of the ion.
• Atoms of metallic elements tend to form positive ions (cations) by losing one or more
electrons.
• Atoms of non-metallic elements tend to form negative ions (anions) by gaining one or
more electrons.
• Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed.
• Anions are larger than the atoms from which they were formed.

• The ionic radius of the elements exhibits trends in the periodic table.
• Ionic radius increases as you move from top to bottom on the periodic table.
• Ionic radius decreases as you move across the periodic table, from left to right.
• Although ionic radius and atomic radius do not mean exactly the same thing, the trend
applies to the atomic radius as well as to the ionic radius.
 Ionic size

Positive and negative ions form when electrons are transferred between atoms.

Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed
Anions are larger than the atoms from which they were formed
 Ionic Size
◼ Few More examples:
Size generally increases
Trends in Ionic Size
 Ionization Energy

1. Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom in its ground state.
2. The higher ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove the electrons.
3. The first ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the 1 st electron from an
atom in the gaseous state.

Periodic Trend

Going down a column, IE's decrease.

Going across rows, IE's increase.
Much like all the trends, the two extremes of this property are at the bottom left (smallest IE)
and the top right (largest IE). Going down a column, IE's decrease. Going across rows, IE's
increase.
• The IE of the first member of any group is the highest within that group and the IE of
the last member in the same group, is the least.
Table: First IE of the elements (in kJ mol-1)
 Electron affinity (EA) or Electron Gain enthalpy
• Every atom, in general, has a tendency to gain or loose electrons in order to acquire a noble
gas configuration.

• Ex: Halogens, have seven electrons in their outermost orbit. Thus they show a tendency to
accept one more electron and attain the nearest noble gas configuration.

• Electron affinity is the amount of energy released when one electron is added to a neutral
atom (A) in order to form a –1 anion. The reaction (with energy shown) is

• The energy change (ΔE) for this process is called electron gain enthalpy of that atom.
 Electron gain enthalpy is the energy released or adsorbed for one mole of neutral
atoms in a gaseous state when electron is accepted by each atom.

Where X represents an atom

ΔE = -349 kJ mol-1

• The negative value shows release of energy and hence tendency to greater stabilization.

• The electron gain enthalpy becomes more in negative from left to right in a period.

• Halogens release maximum energy when they accept an electron.

• The metals do not accept electrons and show a high positive value for ΔE. Thus electron gain
enthalpy can be positive or negative.

• Electron gain enthalpies becomes less negative as we go down the group showing that the
electropositive character of the atoms increases.

• This is because the size of the atom increases down the group and the electron added goes to the
higher shells.

• The electron gain enthalpy of chlorine is more in negative value as compared to that of fluorine.

• This is due to the small size of the F atom and experiences repulsion from other electrons.
Table: Electron gain enthalpy in kJ mol-1
 Electronegativity

◼ Electronegativity is the ability of an atom of an element to attract electrons when the atom
is in a compound.

Towards the left of the table, valence shells are less than half full, so these atoms (metals)
tend to lose electrons and have low electronegativity.

Towards the right of the table, valence shells are more than half full, so these atoms
(nonmetals) tend to gain electrons and have high electronegativity.
• Homonuclear diatomic molecule H2 or F2, the electron pair of the covalent bond in each
molecule experiences equal attraction by each atom.
• Thus none of the two atoms is able to shift the bond pair of electrons to itself.
• In heteronuclear diatomic molecule, the bond pair electrons get shifted towards the atom
which is more electronegative than the other.
 Electronegativity Increases
Electronegativity Decreases
Electronegativity (Pauling’s scale)
The ELECTRONEGATIVITY of an element helps us understand the
difference between ionic and covalent bonding
 Elements with a HIGH electronegativity have a
STRONG pull on electrons.

Elements with a LOW electronegativity have a WEAK pull on electrons.

 When two atoms form a bond their DIFFERENCE in
electronegativity determines the bond type.

A large difference in electronegativity means one atom will

win the “tug of war” and take the electrons completely.
This is an ionic bond.
 When the electronegativity of two bonding atoms is very
similar, neither atom wins the “tug of war” and the electrons
are shared equally.

This produces a covalent bond

 Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)
• In a many electron atom, each electron is attracted to the positively charged nucleus and
repelled by the other negatively charged electrons.

• Effective Nuclear Charge is the net attraction force an outer electron feels. Net means that
attraction and repulsion forces are taken into account.

• Zeff takes both of these factors into account and represents an estimate of the net electric field
experienced by an electron

• The term "effective" is used because the shielding effect of negatively charged electrons
prevents higher orbital electrons from experiencing the full nuclear charge by the repelling
effect of inner-layer electrons.
The effective nuclear charge is mathematically expressed as,
Zeff = Z − S
Z = number of protons in the nucleus
S = Screening constant; the number of core electrons that screen the
 Zeff = Z − S
Factors affecting Zeff
Z = number of protons in the nucleus
• Size of an atom S =the number of core electrons that screen the
Outer electrons from the positive charge in the nucleus.
• Total nuclear charge (Z)
• The screening and shielding of the inner shell and neighboring electrons of the same shell
• The extend of penetration of outermost electrons into the charge cloud.

Calculating Effective Nuclear Charge of Sodium Calculating Effective Nuclear Charge of Magnesium

Sodium has 10 inner electrons Magnesium has 10 inner electrons

and 11 protons and 12 protons

Zeff = Z-S Zeff = Z-S

Zeff = 11-10 = +1 Zeff = 12-10 = +2
 Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff )

Shielding electrons (S)

Felt
by
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)

Atomic Number (Z = #p+)

Zeff = Z - S
Attractive Atomic Inner Core of
Charge felt Number Shielding e- =
by valence (#p+) screening
electrons constant
 Effective Nuclear Charge Trend
• As you travel left to right across a period:
– Atomic number increases
– Shielding stays roughly the same
– Therefore Zeff increases significantly across a period
• As you travel down a family
– Atomic number increases sharply
– Shielding increases sharply
– Zeff does increase down a family but not as much as you might expect.
Orbital Diagram Rules for Filling Electrons in Orbitals

Aufbau Principle:
Electrons are added in orbitals in order of
increasing energy values

Pauli Exclusion Principle:

No two electrons in the same orbital can have
the same values of four quantum numbers

Hund’s Rule:
Electrons occupy equal energy orbitals so that a
maximum number of unpaired electrons results.
 Penetration of Orbitals
• Penetration describes the proximity of electrons in an orbital to the nucleus.
Electrons which experience greater penetration experience less shielding and
therefore experience a larger Effective Nuclear Charge (Z eff) but shield other
electrons more effectively.

• The repulsion an electron feels is shielding and the attraction it feels to the nucleus
is penetration.

• Penetration is not the outer electrons penetrating through the shield of the core
electrons. It is actually just how well the electrons feel the nucleus.

• It is essentially the number of protons charge minus the number of electrons

shielding- basically how effective the nucleus is at attracting the electrons.

• In a multi-electron system, the penetration of the nucleus by an electron is measured

by the relative electron density near the nucleus of an atom for each shell and
subshell of an electron.
Periodic Trends Due to Penetration and Shielding

A) Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff) The effective nuclear charge increases from left to right and increases from
top to bottom on the periodic table.

B) Atomic Radius The atomic radius decreases from left to right, and increases from top to bottom.

C) Ionization Energies The ionization energies increase from left to right, and decrease from top to bottom.

D) Electronegativity The electronegativity of the elements is highest near fluorine. In general, it increases from
left to right and decreases from top to bottom.
 Shielding and De-shielding
• Shielding refers to the core electrons repelling the outer rings and thus lowering the 1:1 ratio. The nucleus has
"less grip" on the outer electrons and are shielded from them.

• Shielding describes the amount of screening from nuclear charge that one electron can do with respect to its
neighbouring electrons. Electrons that have greater penetration can get closer to the nucleus and effectively
block out the charge from electrons that have less proximity.

• For example, Zeff is calculated by subtracting the magnitude of shielding from the total nuclear charge. The
value of Zeff will provide information on how much of a charge an electron actually experiences.

• Because the order of electron penetration from greatest to least is s, p, d, f; the order of the amount of
shielding done is also in the order s, p, d, f.
 Polarizability

The ability of a cation to distort an anion is known as its polarization power and the
tendency of the anion to become polarized by the cation is known as its polarizability. It
is enhanced by the following factors.

Small cation:
The high polarizing power stems from the greater concentration of positive charge on a
small area. This explains why LiBr is more covalent than KBr (Li+ 90 pm cf. K + 152
pm).

Large anion:
The high polarizability stems from the larger size where the outer electrons are more
loosely held and can be more easily distorted by the cation. This explains why for the
common halides, iodides, are the most covalent in nature (I206 pm).
Introduction: Molecular Orbital Theory
• The Molecular Orbital Theory (often abbreviated to MOT) is a theory on chemical bonding developed
at the beginning of the twentieth century by F. Hund and R. S. Mulliken to describe the structure and
properties of different molecules and electronic distribution.

• MOT is helpful in predicting molecular properties such as, shape, magnetism, and bond order.

• According MOT, individual atomic orbitals combine to form molecular orbitals, as the electrons of an
atom are present in various atomic orbitals and are associated with various nuclei
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Molecular orbitals are classified based on their energy:
1) Bonding orbitals
2) Anti-bonding orbitals
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• When addition of wave function takes place, the type of molecular orbital formed are called bonding
molecular orbitals. It is represented as ψMO = ψA + ψB. They have low energy than atomic orbital
involved.
• When subtraction of wave function takes place, the type of molecular orbital formed are called anti-
bonding orbitals. It is represented as ψMO = ψA - ψB. They have higher energy.
The key features of the molecular orbital theory are listed below.

•The total number of molecular orbitals formed will always be equal to the total number of
atomic orbitals offered by the bonding species.

•There exist different types of molecular orbitals viz; bonding molecular orbitals, anti-
bonding molecular orbitals, and non-bonding molecular orbitals. Of these, anti-bonding
molecular orbitals will always have higher energy than the parent orbitals whereas bonding
molecular orbitals will always have lower energy

•The electrons are filled into molecular orbitals in the increasing order of orbital energy
(from the orbital with the lowest energy to the orbital with the highest energy).

•The most effective combinations of atomic orbitals (for the formation of molecular orbitals)
occur when the combining atomic orbitals have similar energies.
The filling of molecular orbitals takes place according to certain rules:

• Molecular orbitals are filled in order of increasing energies (Aufbau Principle)

• Molecular orbitals can have maximum of two electrons and these must have
opposite spin (Pauli’s exclusion principle)

• Pairing of electrons in degenerate molecular orbitals does not takes place until
each of them has one electron each (Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity)
When two atomic orbitals combine there are two resultant orbitals
Example: S-Orbital High energy anti-bonding orbitals

Low energy bonding orbitals

 Molecular Orbital Theory
Bonding MO Anti-Bonding MO
Molecular orbitals formed by the additive effect of the Molecular orbitals formed by the subtractive effect of
atomic orbitals is called bonding molecular orbitals atomic is called anti-bonding molecular orbitals

Probability of finding the electrons is more in the case of Probability of finding electrons is less in antibonding
bonding molecular orbitals molecular orbitals. There is also a node between the anti-
bonding molecular orbital between two nuclei where the
electron density is zero.

These are formed by the combination of + and + and – These are formed by the overlap of + with – part.
with – part of the electron waves

The electron density, in the bonding molecular orbital in The electron density in the antibonding molecular orbital
the internuclear region, is high. As a result, the nuclei are in the internuclear region is very low and so the nuclei are
shielded from each other and hence the repulsion is very directly exposed to each other. Therefore the nuclei are less
less. shielded from each other.

The bonding molecular orbitals are represented by σ, π, δ The corresponding anti-bonding molecular orbitals are
represented by σ∗ , π∗, δ∗.
MO theory takes the idea of atomic orbitals overlapping to a new level, where new molecular
orbitals are generated using a mathematical process called linear combination of atomic
orbitals (LCAO). +
Constructive interference

+. +. .
ψg
. bonding
cA = c B = 1

ψg = N [ψA + ψB]
Amplitudes of wave
functions added
+. -. -
+ .
.
Destructive interference

ΨA-ΨB

Anti-bonding
 Bond Order

• It is defined as half of difference between the number of electrons present in the

bonding orbital and antibonding orbitals that is,

• Bond Order (BO) = (No. of electrons in BMO - No. of electrons in ABMO)/2

• Those with positive bond orders are considered as stable molecules while those
with negative bond orders or zero bonder orders are unstable molecules.
Bond Order for H2
Electronic Configuration of H atom: (σ1s)2
higher bond order = stronger bond
Bond order = 2 – 0 / 2
Bond order = 1
It means a single covalent bond exists in H2 molecule, and diamagnetic since there is no unpaired
electron.
 First period diatomic molecules
H H2 H σ
1s2
σ u*
Bond order: 1
Energy
(Single Bond)
1s 1s Stable molecule (450 KJ/mol)

σg

Bond order =
½ (bonding electrons – antibonding electrons)
Diatomic molecules: The bonding in He2

He He2 He
σ 1s2, σ*1s2

σu*

Bond order: 0
Energy 1s 1s No Bond
Unstable Molecule
σg 0 KJ/mole
 Diatomic Molecules: MO diagrams for He2+ and He2

σ*1s σ*1s
Energy

Energy
1s 1s 1s 1s

σ1s σ1s
AO MO of AO AO MO of AO
of He+ of of He2 of
He He+ He He

He2+ bond order = 1/2 He2 bond order = 0

Not Very Stable can cannot
250 KJ/mol exist! Figure 11.16 exist!
Second period diatomic molecules
Li Li2 Li σ1s2, σ*1s2, σ 2s2

2σu* Bond order: 1

2s 2s

Energy
2σg

1σu*

1s 1s
1σg
Diatomic molecules: Homonuclear Molecules of the Second Period
Be Be2 Be

2σu*
σ 1s2, σ *1s2, σ 2s2,
2s 2s
σ *2s2
Energy

2σg
Bond order: 0

1σu*

1s 1s
1σg
 Application of MO Theory to H2, He2, N2, O2, HF and CO

An energy level diagram is a graphical representation of the energies of the various orbitals of
an atom or molecule. In most cases, the energy level diagram will be represented as a series of
horizontal lines, with each line representing an orbital.
Molecular Orbital Diagram for the O2 molecule

O2 = 1s22s22p4
Molecular Orbital Diagram for the N2 molecule
Molecular Orbital Diagram for the CO
molecule
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules - Molecular Orbital
Diagram for the HF molecule.
 Crystal field theory and the energy level diagrams for transition
metal ions and their magnetic properties

A major feature of transition metals is their tendency to form complexes. A complex may
be considered as consisting of a central metal atom or ion surrounded by a number of
ligands. The interaction between these ligands with the central metal atom or ion is
subject to crystal field theory.
 Crystal-Field Theory

▪ Crystal field theory describes bonding in transition metal complexes.

▪ The formation of a complex is a Lewis acid-base reaction.

▪ Both electrons in the bond come from the ligand and are donated into an empty, hybridized
orbital on the metal.

▪ Charge is donated from the ligand to the metal.

▪ Assumption in crystal field theory: the interaction between ligand and metal is electrostatic.

▪ The more directly the ligand attacks the metal orbital, the higher the energy of the d orbital.
 Crystal-Field Theory-Postulates

(i)In a coordination compound there are electrostatic interaction between metal atom/ion and
ligands. Ligand assumed to be a point charge

(ii) In an isolated metal atom or ion all five d-orbitals have equal energy i.e. they are
degenerate

(iii) When metal atom/ion gets surrounded by ligands, there occur interaction between d
electron cloud of metal atom/ion and ligands

(iv) If the field due to ligan around metal atom is spherically symmetrical, d-orbitals of metal
remains degenerated

(v) If filed due to ligand surrounding metal is unsymmetrical ( as in octahedral and tetrahedral
complexes) the degeracy of d-orbitals is splitted into two sets of orbitals
(vi) Orbitals lying in the direction of ligands (point charges) are raised to higher
energy state than those orbitals lying between the ligands ( point charges)

(vii) The energy difference between two sets of orbitals is denoted by ∆o for
octahedral and ∆t for tetrahedral

(viii) The magnitude of ∆o and ∆t depends upon the field strength of ligand around
the metal

(ix) Ligands which cause larger splitting ( large ∆) are called strong field ligands
while those which causes small splitting (small ∆) are called weak filed ligands
d-Orbitals in an Octahedral Field of
Ligands

Greater electrostatic repulsion = Higher potential energy

Less electrostatic repulsion = Lower potential energy
▪ The complex metal ion has a lower energy than the separated metal and ligands.

▪ In an octahedral field, the five d orbitals do not have the same energy: three
degenerate orbitals are higher energy than two degenerate orbitals.

▪ The energy gap between them is called Δ, the crystal field splitting energy.
Splitting of d-Orbital Energies by an Octahedral Field of Ligands
• Splitting of d-orbitals depends on the nature of the crystal field. [The
energy difference between t2g and eg level is designated by Δ and is called
crystal field splitting energy].

• A series in which ligand are arranged in order of increasing magnitude of

crystal field splitting, is called spectrochemical series.
Weak field

I− < Br− < S2− < SCN− < Cl− < NO3− < N3− < F− < OH− < C2O42− < H2O <
NCS− < CH3CN < py < NH3< en < bipy < phen < NO2− < PPh3 < CN− < CO
Strong field
• Ligands for which Δo < P are known as weak field ligands and form high spin
complexes.

• If Δo > P, more energetically favorable for the fourth electron to occupy a t 2g orbital
with configuration t42g eog. (where, P = energy required for e- pairing in an orbital).

• Ligands which produce this effect are known as strong field ligands and form low spin
complexes.
The Spectrochemical Series
Effect of the Ligand on Splitting Energy
 Crystal field Splitting in Tetrahedral (Td)
Complexes
• In Td complexes, 4 ligands may be imagined to occupy the alternate comers of the
cube & the metal ion at the center of the cube.

• Energy of t2g set of orbitals > Energy of eg set of orbitals.

• In such complexes d-orbital splitting is inverted and is smaller as compared to the

octahedral field splitting.

• Orbital splitting energies are so low that pairing of electrons is not possible so these
are high spin complexes.
Splitting of d-orbital Energies by a Tetrahedral Field
Energy level diagrams for transition metal ions
and their magnetic properties.
Using crystal field theory, it is possible to draw the energy level diagram, electronic configuration of a
central metal atom/ion of a complex and to determine the magnetic moment value. Few examples are
given below.
You-Tube Contents Related to the topics

Periodic Properties of Elements:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L26rRWz4_AI
Trends in Periodic Table:
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Effective Nuclear Charge, Shielding effect, & Periodic Properties
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hs5t-6iq6-c
Crystal field theory (CFT) of Octahedral & Tetrahedral complexes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z9CmSAV1wcY

Molecular Orbital Theory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O192jrR80oo
Interactive Periodic Table-Stanford University
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