ANIMAL BREEDING

ERWIN L. ICALLA
Associate Professor V
BROLERS FCR of 1.65: 1
Swine FCR 2.5 to 3
Feed conversion ratio (FCR )
• is a measurement of how efficiently a animal converts feed into body
weight:
• Formula: FCR = Feed intake / Weight gain
• 8 sacks of feeds/180 kgs (100 heads x 1.8)
• 8x 50 = 400kgs/ 180kgs
• = 2.2
IMPORTANCE OF GENETICS

• Genetics is the study of heredity, or the way in which traits of parents

are passed on to off spring.
• Good breeding programs are based on an application of the principles
of genetics.
• Farm animals today are better than they were 100 years ago.
• They produce more meat, milk, eggs, and wool on less feed.
• Much of this progress in livestock efficiency is the result of the use of
genetics.
GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL
• An Austrian monk is considered to be the founder of the science of
genetics. In a period from 1857 to 1865,
• Mendel did many experiments with garden peas.
• He proved that certain characteristics, such as color and height, are
passed from parent to off spring.
• Livestock breeders use this fact to select animals for breeding that will
produce off spring with desirable characteristics.
Discovered fundamental law of
inheritance
• The Law of Segregation
Each inherited trait is defined by a gene pair, and each parent randomly
passes one gene of the pair to their offspring.
• The Law of Independent Assortment
Genes for different traits are sorted separately, so the inheritance of
one trait is independent of another.
• The Law of Dominance
When an organism has different forms of a gene, it will express the
dominant form.
Additive and Non additive Gene
Effects
• When many different genes are involved in the expression of a trait, that
expression is said to be controlled by additive gene effects.
• Individual genes have relatively little effect on the trait; the effect of each
gene is cumulative with very little or no dominance between pairs of
alleles.
• Each member of the gene pair has an equal opportunity to be expressed.
Most of the economically important traits of livestock are controlled by
additive gene effects.
• Carcass traits, weight gain, and milk production are examples of traits
that have moderate to high heritability and are considered to be greatly
influenced by additive gene effect
NON ADDITIVE GENE
• control traits by determining how gene pairs act in different combinations
with one another.
• Generally, these traits are readily observable and are controlled by only one
or a few pairs of genes.
• Typically, one of the genes in the pair will be dominant if the animal is
heterozygous for the trait being expressed. When combinations of gene pairs
give good effects, the off spring will be better than either of its parents.
• This is sometimes called hybrid vigor or heterosis.
• Traits that result from nonadditive gene effects are considered to be
qualitative.
• The phenotype of these traits can usually be identified easily, there is
relatively little environmental effect on these traits, and the genotype can
usually be easily determined.
Heritability Estimates
• Heritability is the proportion of the total variation (genetic and
environmental) that is due to additive gene effects.
• A heritability estimate expresses the likelihood of a trait being passed
on from parent to off spring.
• If a trait has a high heritability, the improvement in the animals’
characteristics will be rapid.
• The improvement is slow for traits with a low heritability, requiring
several generations of animals for the desirable trait to become
strong.
SwineTraits and heritability
estimates
ENVIRONMENT
• Not all differences in animals are caused by genetics. Some are caused
by the environment, or the conditions under which the animals are
raised. This makes the job of selection more difficult
• However, methods have been developed that enable farmers to select
parent animals with traits that are related to genetics
• rather than the environment
TRANSMISSION OF
CHARACTERISTICS
• The characteristics of an animal that are inheritable are passed from
one generation to the next by genes.
• Genes are located on chromosomes and are composed of DNA.
Because chromosomes occur in homologous pairs, the genes that
they carry are also paired.
Genotype
• refers to the combination of genes that an individual possesses.
• The genes provide the code for the synthesis of enzymes and other
proteins that control the chemical reactions in the body.
• These chemical reactions ultimately determine the physical
characteristics of the animal.
PHENOTYPE
• The physical appearance of an animal, insofar as its appearance is
determined by its genotype, is referred to as its phenotype.
Environmental conditions may also influence the physical appearance
of an animal. For example, the genotype of a beef animal for rate of
gain determines a range for that characteristic in which it will fall, but
the ration it receives will determine where it actually is in that range
Mitosis

• Each animal begins as a single cell.

• This cell divides to make two cells.
• The cells continue to divide, and groups of cells form specialized
tissues and organs in the animal’s body.
• This division of body cells in an animal is called mitosis.
• Mitosis increases the number of body cells, which causes the animal
to grow.
• Old body cells that die are replaced by mitosis.
• Chromosomes occur in pairs in the nucleus of all body cells except the
sperm and ovum.
• Each parent contributes one-half of the pair.
• The number of pairs of chromosomes is called the diploid number.
The diploid number varies from species to species but is constant for
each species of animal:
DIPLOID NUMBER

• example

• cattle 30 goat 30 chicken 39

• swine 19 horse 32 rabbit 22
Dominant and Recessive Genes
• A dominant gene in a heterozygous pair hides the effect of its allele.
The allele that is hidden is called a recessive gene. The polled (not
having horns) condition in cattle is the result of a dominant gene and
is said to be a dominant trait. The horned condition in cattle is a
recessive trait. When problems involving genetic inheritance are
being worked, the dominant gene is usually represented by a capital
letter. The recessive gene is usually represented by a small letter. In
the example of polled cattle, the dominant gene is written as P. The
recessive gene is written as p. (P = polled condition; p = horned
condition).
Dominant and Recessive Genes
• Some other examples of dominant and recessive traits are:
• Tall is dominant over short
• Black in cattle is dominant over red.
• White face in cattle is dominant to colored face.
• Black in horses is dominant to brown.
• Color in animals is dominant to albinism. (Albino animals lack all color.)
• Rose comb in chickens is dominant to single comb.
• Pea comb in chickens is dominant to single comb.
• Barred feather patt ern in chickens is dominant to non barred feather
pattern (the dominant gene is also sex linked).
• Normal size in cattle is dominant to “snorter” dwarfism
Homozygous and Heterozygous

• Gene Pairs
• A homozygous gene pair is one that carries two genes for a trait. For
example, a polled cow might carry the gene pair PP. A horned cow must
carry the gene pair pp. For a cow to have horns, it must carry two
recessive genes for the horned trait. A heterozygous gene pair is one
that carries two different genes (called alleles) that affect a trait. For
example, a polled cow might carry the gene pair Pp. This cow is polled
(because the P gene is dominant), but carries a recessive gene for the
horned trait. If this cow is mated to a bull with a gene pair Pp, some of
the calves will be polled and some will have horns.
•
There are six basic types of genetic combinations possible when a single gene pair

• homozygous X homozygous (PP X PP) (both dominant)

• heterozygous X heterozygous (Pp X Pp)
• homozygous (dominant) X heterozygous (PP X Pp)
• homozygous (dominant) X homozygous (recessive) (PP X pp)
• heterozygous X homozygous (recessive) (Pp X pp)
• homozygous (recessive) X homozygous (recessive) (pp X pp)
Punnett square
• It is possible to predict the results of crossing animals with various
kinds of genotype. Genotype refers to the kinds of gene pairs
possessed by the animal. A Punnett square may be used to predict
the results of crossing animals with various kinds of genotype. The
male gametes are usually shown across the top of the Punnett square
and the female gametes along the left side.
Results of crossing are often referred to in the following manner in
genetics:

• parental generation P
• first filial generation F1
• second filial generation F2
Homozygous x Homozygous (PP
x PP) (Both Dominant).
• A cross between two polled cattle that are homozygous for the polled
trait would be set up as follows:
PP x PP
• All the F1 are homozygous for the polled trait with the genotype PP.
• All the F1 are polled.
• If the parents are homozygous dominant, all the F1 must be
homozygous
• dominant.
heterozygous X heterozygous (Pp X Pp)
A cross between two cattle that are heterozygous
for the polled trait is set up as follows:
• The F1 genotypic ratio is 1:2:1 (1 PP, 2 Pp, 1 pp).
• The F1 phenotypic ratio is 3:1 (3 polled, 1 horned).
Homozygous (Dominant) x Heterozygous (PP x Pp).
A cross between two cattle, one homozygous and one
heterozygous for the polled trait, is set up as follows:
• The F1 genotypic ratio is 1:1 (2 PP, 2 Pp).
• All the F1 are polled.
Homozygous (Dominant) x Homozygous
(Recessive) (PP x pp). Across between two cattle,
one homozygous (dominant) and one homozygous
(recessive) for the polled trait, is set up as follows:
All the F1 are heterozygous, with the genotype Pp.
All the F1 are polled
Heterozygous x Homozygous (Recessive) (Pp x pp). A cross between two cattle, one
heterozygous and one homozygous (recessive) for the polled trait, is set up as follows:
The F1 genotypic ratio is 1:1 (2 Pp, 2 pp).
The F1 phenotypic ratio is 1:1 (2 polled, 2
horned).
Homozygous x Homozygous (pp x pp) (Both Recessive). A cross
between two horned cattle, both homozygous (recessive) for the polled trait,
is set up as follows:
All the F1 are homozygous for the horned trait, with the genotype pp.
All the F1 are horned.
If the parents are homozygous recessive, all the F1 must be homozygous recessive.
Multiple Gene Pairs

• When more than one trait is considered, the possible genotypes and
phenotypes increase.
• For example, if a polled, black cow (PpBb) is crossed with a polled,
black bull (PpBb), both animals are heterozygous for the two traits.
The Punnett square is set up as
follows
• The genotypic ratio of the F1 is 1:2:2:4:1:1:2:2:1 (1 PPBB, 2 PPBb, 2
PpBB,4 PpBb, 1 PPbb, 1 ppBB, 2 Ppbb, 2 ppBb, and 1 ppbb).
• The phenotypic ratio of the F1 is 9:3:3:1 (9 polled, black; 3 polled,
red;3 horned, black; and 1 horned, red).
Sex Determination/Mammals

• The sex of the off spring is determined at the moment of fertilization.

The female mammal has two sex chromosomes in addition to the
regular chromosomes.
• These are shown as XX. Male mammals have only one sex
chromosome. The other chromosome of the pair is shown as Y. Th e
female is thus shown as XX.
Sex Determination/Mammals

• The male is shown as XY.

• After meiosis, all the egg cells will have an X chromosome, but only
one-half the sperm cells will have an X chromosome.
• The other half of the sperm cells will have a Y chromosome.
• Thus, the sex of the off spring is determined by the male parent.
This can be shown by the use of the Punnett square: One-half of the off spring are females (XX). One-half of the off spring
are males (XY).
Poultry
• In poultry, the female determines the sex of the off spring. Th e male
carries two sex chromosomes (shown as ZZ).
• The female carries only one sex chromosome. The other chromosome
of the female pair is shown as W.
• The female is thus shown as ZW.
• After meiosis, all the sperm cells carry a Z chromosome.
• Only one-half of the egg cells carry a Z chromosome; the other half
carries a W chromosome.
•
The determination of the sex of the off spring by the female can be
shown by use of the Punnett square:
Sex-Linked Characteristics

• Genes that are carried only on the sex chromosomes are called sex-
linked genes.
• An example of a sex-linked trait is the barred color in chickens. Barred
color (B) is dominant to red color.
• The gene for barred color is carried only on the sex chromosome.
• The results of crossing a barred female (ZBW) with a red male (ZbZb) is
shown as follows.
Punnet square sex linked traits
THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING
ERWIN L. ICALLA
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR V