Network Fundamentals

COMMUNICATING OVER THE NETWORK

LECTURER #1,2,3,4
CHAPTER # 2

INSTRUCTOR : MAZHAR JAMIL

Revision ( previous Ch
1)
 Communicating in a Network-Centric World
 Networks Supporting the Way We Live
 Popular Communication Tools (IM, Blogs, Podcasting, Wikis{collaboration tool })
 Networks Supporting the Way We Learn (distance education, video and audio conferences)
 Networks Supporting the Way We Work (Business, internet, Intranet, extranet)
 Networks Supporting the Way We Play (games, TV shows, and movies)
 Communication (sender, receiver, protocols)
 Quality of communication(External factor, internal factor )
 Element of network (Rules or agreements, Messages, Medium, Devices)
 Convergence
 Architecture of network (fault tolerance, scalability, quality of service,
security)
Introduction
 This transformation of analog to a digital platform is possible because
computer networks have grown in size, reliability, and diversity, enabling
people to take advantage of the benefits of digital communication

 In this chapter, focus on the platform for this digital communication that is
built upon fundamental communication concepts.

 These concepts are applied to devices and media that enable the sending of
data messages between end users.
The Elements of
Communication
 People exchange ideas using many different communication methods. All of
these methods have three elements in common:
1) Message source, or sender: Sending Device
2) Destination, or receiver of the message: Receiving Device
3) Channel: media that carries the massage from source to destination.

 This model of sending a message through a channel to the receiver is also

the basis of network communication between computers
 The computers encode the message into binary signals
 Transport them across a cable or through wireless media to the receiver,
 Receiver knows what rules to follow to understand the original message.
Communicating the Messages

 Computer networks carry messages large and small.

 Devices often exchange updates that are small and require very little
bandwidth, yet are very important.
 High-quality photos, can be very large and consume a lot of network
resources.
 Sending a large photograph in one continuous stream of data
might mean that a device misses an important update or other
communication that will need to be re-sent, using even more
bandwidth.

 The answer to this problem is a process called segmentation

Conti….

 Segmentation: in which all messages are broken into smaller pieces that
can be easily transported together across a medium.

 Segmenting messages has two primary benefits:

 Multiplexing
 Increased efficiency of network communications

 Multiplexing occurs when the segments of two or more messages can

shuffle into each other and share the medium
Conti…
 Efficiency of network: A second benefit of segmentation is that networks can more
efficiently send the message through different routes if necessary.
 This can happen because the Internet is always adjusting routes for efficiency.

 Example: For example, consider what happens if someone in Las Vegas e-mails a
picture of her new kitten to a friend in Boston. First, the picture of the kitten is
segmented into small pieces and each piece is given, among other things, a
destination address and a code telling where the piece belongs in the big picture.
When the message is under way, the pieces might not travel along the same route.
Traffic conditions on the Internet are constantly changing, and a large file with many
segments can take a couple different routes. Depending on traffic conditions, the data
containing the kitten’s ears might go through Chicago on the way to Boston, the paws
might go through Denver, and the whiskers and tail might travel through Atlanta. It
doesn’t matter which way the pieces travel as long as they all get to Boston and the
destination computer can reassemble them into one photograph.
 The downside to using segmentation and multiplexing :
 To transmit messages across a network is the level of complexity that is added to the
process.
 Imagine if you had to send a 100-page letter, but each envelope would hold only one
page. The process of addressing, labeling, sending, receiving, and opening the entire
hundred envelopes would be time consuming for both the sender and the recipient.

 In network communications, each segment of the message must go through a

similar process to ensure that it gets to the correct destination and can be
reassembled into the content of the original message.

 Various types of devices throughout the network participate in ensuring that the
pieces of the message arrive reliably at their destination.
Components of the Network
 Devices and media are the physical elements or hardware of the network.

 Hardware is often the visible components of the network platform such as a

laptop, a PC, a switch, or the cabling used to connect the devices.

 Occasionally, some components might not be so visible. like wireless media,

messages are transmitted through the air using invisible radio frequency or
infrared waves.

 Services and processes are the communication programs, called software,

that run on the networked devices.
 E.g. e-mail hosting services and web hosting services.
End Devices and Their Role on the
Network
 An end device refers to a piece of equipment that is either the source or
the destination of a message on a network. (often a computer)

 Another generic term for an end device that sends or receives messages is a
host.
 Computers, including workstations, laptops, and servers connected to a network
 Network printers
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) phones
 Cameras on a network, including webcams and security cameras
 Handheld devices such as PDAs and handheld scanners
 Remote monitoring stations for weather observation
Conti….
 An end user is a person or group using an end device.
 Not all end devices are operated by people all of the time.
 For example, file servers are end devices that are set up by people but perform
their tasks on their own.
 Servers are hosts that are set up to store and share information with other
hosts called clients.
 Clients request information and services, like e-mail and web pages, from
servers, and servers reply with the requested information if they recognize
the client.
 When hosts communicate with each other, they use addresses to find each
other. The host address is a unique physical address used by hosts
inside a local-area network (LAN),
Intermediary Devices and Their Role
on the Network
 Getting a message from the source to the destination can be a complex task
involving several intermediary devices along the way

 Intermediary devices connect the individual hosts to the network and can
connect multiple individual networks to form an internetwork.

 Intermediary devices are not all the same.

 Some work inside the LAN performing switching functions.
 Others help route messages between networks.
Conti…
 The management of data as it flows through the network is also a role
of the intermediary devices.
 These devices use the destination host address, in conjunction with information
about the network interconnections, to determine the path that messages
should take through the network.
 Processes running on the intermediary network devices perform these functions:
 Regenerate and retransmit data signals
 Maintain information about what pathways exist through the network and internetwork
 Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
 Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure
 Classify and direct messages according to quality of service (QoS) priorities
 Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings
Network Media
 The medium provides the channel over which the message travels from
source to destination.
 The three main types of media in use in a network are
 Copper
 Fiber-optic cable
 Wireless

 Each of these media has vastly different physical properties and uses
different methods to encode messages.

 Encoding messages refers to the way data is converted to patterns of

electrical, light, or electromagnetic energy and carried on the medium.
Conti…
 When choosing network media, administrators must consider the following:

 The distance the media can carry the signal

 The environment in which the media works
 The bandwidth requirements for users
 The cost of installation
 The cost of connectors and compatible equipment
LANs, WANs, and
Internetworks
 Networks come in many sizes and serve a wide variety of functions.
 Following are some of the basic differences:
 The size of the area covered
 The number of users connected
 The number and types of services available

 Three distinct groups of networks accommodate different groups and extend

geographic boundaries:
 local-area networks (LANs)
 wide-area networks (WANs)
 internetworks.
Conti….
 Local-Area Networks
 A local-area network (LAN) is a group of end devices and users under the control of a
common administration.
 A LAN can consist of one group of users on one floor, but the term can also be used to describe
all users on a multi building campus.
 Wide-Area Networks
 A wide-area network (WAN) is a network that is used to connect LANs that are located
geographically far apart.
 If a company has offices in different cities, it will contract with a telecommunications service
provider (TSP) to provide data lines between LANs in each city.
 The leased lines will vary in service and bandwidth, depending on the terms of the contract.
 The TSP is responsible for the intermediary devices on the WAN that transports messages, while
LANs at both ends are controlled by the company.
 The sole purpose of WANs is to connect LANs, and there are usually no end users on
WANs
The Internet: A Network of
Networks
 An internetwork is a collection of two or more LANs connected by WANs.
 The most popular internetwork is the Internet, which is open to public use.
 With LANs able to communicate with other LANs using WANs,
 Many organizations developed intranets. (A term often confused with the Internet, an
intranet is a private web of networks closed to the public but open for employees to
browse.)

 Internet service providers (ISP), which are often also TSPs, connect their
customers to the Internet. The customer can be a home user, a company, or a
government institution.
 All Internet users access the web through ISPs.
 The ISPs cooperate with TSPs and other ISPs to make sure that all users have access to
the web. This involves implementing rules and standards that enable any user to
communicate with any other user regardless of location and equipment type.
Network Representations
Network interface card (NIC):
 A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides the physical connection to the network at the PC or other
host device.
 The media connecting the PC to the networking device plugs directly into the NIC.
 Each NIC has a unique physical address that identifies it on the LAN.
Physical port:
 A physical port is a connector or outlet on a networking device where the media is connected
to a host or other networking device. You can assume that all network host devices used in
this book have a physical port that allows a connection to the network.
Interface:
 The term interface refers to how the device can allow two different networks to communicate.
 Routers connect to different networks, and the specialized NICs on routers are simply called
interfaces. The interface on a router device has a unique physical address and appears as a
host on the local network.
Protocols
 All communication, whether face-to-face or over a network, is governed by
predetermined rules called protocols.

 Rules That Govern Communications:

 You can use these examples to understand three different layers of a
simple conversation.
 Consider two people communicating face to face. The bottom layer, the
physical layer, has two people, each with a voice that can utter words
aloud.
 The second layer, the rules layer, has an agreement to speak in a common
language.
 The top layer, the content layer, has the words actually spoken, that is, the
content of the communication
Conti….
 layers model provide a way to conveniently break a complex task into parts
and describe how they work.
 The need for protocols also applies to network devices. Computers have no
way of learning protocols.
 Network engineers have written rules for communication that must be strictly
followed for successful host-to-host communication.
 These rules apply to different layers of sophistication such as which physical
connections to use, how hosts listen, how to interrupt, how to say good-bye,
what language to use, and many others.

 These rules, or protocols, that work together to ensure successful

communication are grouped into what is known as a protocol suite.
Network Protocols
 For devices to communicate on a network, they must follow different
protocols that perform the many tasks to be completed.

 The protocols define the following:

 The format of the message, such as how much data to put into each segment
 The way intermediary devices share information about the path to the
destination
 The method to handle update messages between intermediary devices
 The process to initiate and terminate communications between hosts
Protocol Suites and Industry
Standards
 In the early days of networking , each manufacturer had proprietary network
equipment and protocols to support it.
 This worked well as long as the company that purchased the equipment did
not need to share data outside its own network.
 Need common protocols (standards) to ensure interoperability between
vendors.
 For example, Microsoft, Apple, and Linux operating systems each have a way
to implement the TCP/IP protocol stack. This allows the users of different
operating systems to have common access to network communication.
 The organizations that standardize networking protocols are the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Interaction of Protocols
 An example of the use of a protocol suite in network communications is the
interaction between a web server and a web browser.
 The different protocols work together to ensure that the messages are received
and understood by both parties.
 Examples of these protocols are as follows:
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
 HTTP is a common protocol that governs the way that a web server and a web client
interact.
 HTTP defines the content and formatting of the requests and responses exchanged
between the client and server.
 Both the client and the web server software implement HTTP as part of the application.
 The HTTP protocol relies on other protocols to govern how the messages are
transported between client and server.
Conti….
 Transport protocol:
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport protocol that manages the
individual conversations between web servers and web clients.
 TCP divides the HTTP messages into smaller pieces, called segments, to be sent
to the destination client.
 It is also responsible for controlling the size and rate at which messages are
exchanged between the server and the client.
 Internetwork protocol:
 The most common internetwork protocol is Internet Protocol (IP).
 IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments from TCP, encapsulating them
into packets, assigning the appropriate addresses, and selecting the best path to
the destination host.
Conti…..
 Network access protocols:
 Network access protocols describe two primary functions:
1. Data-link management
2. Physical transmission of data on the media.
 Data-link management protocols take the packets from IP and format them to be
transmitted over the media.

 The standards and protocols for the physical media govern how the signals are
sent over the media and how they are interpreted by the receiving clients.

 Transceivers on the network interface cards implement the appropriate standards

for the media that is being used.
Technology-Independent
Protocols
 Protocols that guide the network communication process are not dependent on
any specific technology to carry out the task.
 Protocols describe what must be done to communicate, not how the task is to be
completed.
 (e.g. The protocol instructs students to raise their hands, but high , low , left, right)

 This is what enables different types of devices, such as telephones and

computers, to use the same network infrastructure to communicate. Each device
has its own technology, but it is able to interact with different devices at the
network level.

 Previous example of Apple, Microsoft, and Linux, the operating systems using
TCP/IP
Using Layered Models

 The IT industry uses layered models to describe the complex process of network
communication.

 The Benefits of a Layered Model:

 Allows greater understanding and cooperation.
 Segments the process to allow technologies performing one function to evolve
independently of technologies performing other functions. For example, advancing
technologies of wireless media is not dependent on advances in routers.
 Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together.
 Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.
 Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer have
defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and
below.
Protocol and Reference
Models
Protocol Models Reference Models
(TCP/IP) (OSI)
 Implemented model  Reference model
 TCP/IP model describes the  The OSI model describes the
communication process the way entire communication process in
it functions. detail
 To know the TCP/IP model to  It is important to know details of
understand how the process is the OSI model to understand the
implemented in current entire network communication
networks. process
OSI Model
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, provides an abstract
description of the network communication process.

 Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

to provide a road map protocol development.

 Many of the OSI protocols are no longer in use.

 Many professionals refer to the layers by number rather than name.

 The OSI model is just a reference model, so manufacturers have been free to
create protocols and products that combine functions of one or more layers.
Conti…
 As designed, the communication process begins at the application
layer of the source, and data is passed down to each lower layer to
be encapsulated with supporting data until it reaches the physical
layer and is put out on the media.
 When the data arrives at the destination, it is passed back up through layers
and de-capsulated by each layer. Each layer provides data services to the
layer directly above by preparing information coming down the model or
going up.
TCP/IP Model
 The TCP/IP model defines the four communication functions that protocols
perform.

 TCP/IP is an open standard, which means that one company does not control it.

 The rules and implementations of the TCP/IP model were cooperatively developed
by members of the industry using Request for Comments (RFC) documents.

 RFC documents are publicly accessible documents that define specifications and
policies of the protocols.

 Solicitation(Defineing) and maintenance of RFCs are the responsibility of the IETF.

Communication Process
(TCP/IP)
 The TCP/IP model describes the functionality of the protocols that make up
the TCP/IP protocol suite.

 A complete communication process includes these steps:

1) Creation of data at the application layer of the originating source end
device.
2) Segmentation and encapsulation of data as it passes down the protocol
stack in the source end device.
3) Generation of the data onto the media at the network access layer of the
stack.
Conti…
4. Transportation of the data through the internetwork, which consists of
media and any intermediary devices.

5. Reception of the data at the network access layer of the destination end
device.

6. De-capsulation and reassembly of the data as it passes up the stack in

the destination device. You learn more about the encapsulation and de-
capsulation processes in the next section.

7. Passing this data to the destination application at the application layer

of the destination end device.
Protocol Data Units and Encapsulation
(TCP/IP)
 For application data to travel uncorrupted from one host to another, header (or
control data), which contains control and addressing information, is added to
the data as it moves down the layers.
 Encapsulation: The process of adding control information as it passes through
the layered model is called encapsulation.
 Decapsulation: De-capsulation is the process of removing the extra
information and sending only the original application data up to the destination
application layer.

 Each layer adds control information at each step. The generic term for data at
each level is protocol data unit (PDU), but a PDU is different at each layer.
 For example, a PDU at the internetwork layer is different from the PDU at the
transport layer, because internetwork layer data has been added to the transport
layer data.
Encapsulation
Sending and Receiving Process
 An end user, using an e-mail application, creates data. The application layer
codes the data as e-mail and sends the data to the transport layer.

 The message is segmented, or broken into pieces, for transport. The

transport layer adds control information in a header so that it can be
assigned to the correct process and all segments put into proper order at
the destination. The segment is sent down to the internetwork layer.

 The internetwork layer adds IP addressing information in an IP header. The

segment is now an addressed packet that can be handled by routers en
route to the destination. The internetwork layer sends the packet down to
the network access layer.
Conti….
 The network access layer creates an Ethernet frame with local network
physical address information in the header. This enables the packet to get to
the local router and out to the web. The frame also contains a trailer with
error-checking information. After the frame is created, it is encoded into bits
and sent onto the media to the destination.

 At the destination host, the process is reversed. The frame is de-capsulated

to a packet, then to a segment, and then the transport layer puts all
segments into the proper order.

 When all data has arrived and is ready, it is sent to the application layer, and
then the original application data goes to the receiver’s e-mail application.
The message is successful.
Comparing the OSI Model to
the TCP/IP Model
functions of the application,
presentation, and session
layers of the OSI model are
combined into one
application layer in the
TCP/IP model.

TCP operates at the

transport layer, and IP
operates at the Internet
layer.
The data link and physical
layers of the OSI model
combine to make the
network access layer of
the TCP/IP model.
Network Addressing
 Postal systems use physical addresses to deliver mail.
 With the Internet, computers can communicate regardless of
physical location.
 Instead of using a geographical addressing scheme, logical
addressing scheme Used.
 Addressing in the Network:
 millions of computers and billions of messages traversing
networks at any given time.
 So proper addressing is essential to make sure that the sent
message arrives proper destination.
Conti….
 Addressing of data happens in three different layers of the OSI model.
 The PDU at each layer adds address information for use by the peer layer at
the destination.
Getting Data to the End Device
 During the process of encapsulation, address identifiers are added to the data as it travels
down the protocol stack on the source host.
 There are two layers of addressing added to ensure that data is delivered to the destination.
 The first identifier, the host physical address, is contained in the header of the Layer 2 PDU,
called a frame.
 Layer 2 is concerned with the delivery of messages on a single local network.
 The Layer 2 address is unique on the local network and represents the address of the end
device on the physical media.
 In a LAN using Ethernet, this address is called the MAC address.
 The terms physical address and MAC address are often used interchangeably.
 When two end devices communicate on the local Ethernet network, the frames that are
exchanged between them contain the destination and source MAC addresses.
 After a frame is successfully received by the destination host, the Layer 2 address information
is removed as the data is de-capsulated and moved up the protocol stack to Layer 3.
Getting Data Through the
Internetwork
 Layer 3 protocols are primarily designed to move data from one local network to
another local network within an internetwork.
 Whereas Layer 2 addresses are only used to communicate between devices on a
single local network
 Layer 3 addresses must include identifiers (IP addr) that enable intermediary
network devices to locate hosts on different networks.
 At the boundary of each local network, an intermediary network device, usually a
router, decapsulates the frame to read the destination host address contained in the
header of the packet, the Layer 3 PDU.
 Routers use the network identifier portion of this address to determine which path to
use to reach the destination host.
 When the path is determined, the router encapsulates the packet in a new frame
and sends it on its way toward the destination end device.
 When the frame reaches its final destination, the frame and packet headers are
removed and the data moved up to Layer 4.
Getting Data to the Right
Application
 At Layer 4, information contained in the PDU header does not identify a
destination host or a destination network.
 it identify the specific process or service running on the destination host
device that will act on the data being delivered.
 Multiple network applications simultaneously. People using PCs often have
an e-mail client running at the same time as a web browser, an instant
messaging program
 A computer that has only one network interface on it. All the data streams
created by the applications that are running on the PC enter and leave
through that one interface,
 instant messages do not pop up in the middle of a word processor
document or e-mail showing up in a game.
Conti…
 This is because the transport layer adds port numbers to its segment
header information to ensure that the destination host knows which
application process is to receive the packet.
 The end host assigns a port number to each type of traffic going in and out.
 A user can send and receive many types of traffic over a single network
interface, and using port numbers
 The segment contains both source and destination ports in case the receiver
needs to contact the sender.