Hysteresis loss :Hysteresis loss occurs in all the

magnetic parts of electrical machines where there is

reversal of magnetisation. This loss results in wastage
of energy in the form of heat .
 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
• Whenever a conductor cuts across the magnetic field, an emf
is induced in the conductor.
 Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:
• The direction of induced emf and hence current in a
conductor or coil can be determined by
• Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: This rule is applied to determine
the direction of induced emf in a conductor moving across the
field
Induced emf:

• When flux linking with a conductor (or coil) changes, an emf is

induced in it. This change in flux linkages can be obtained in
the following two ways:
Dynamically induced emf
Statically induced emf
Dynamically induced emf:

• By either moving the conductor and keeping the magnetic

field system stationary or moving the magnetic field system
and keeping the conductor stationary, in such a way that
conductor cuts across the magnetic field (as in case of DC and
AC generators). The emf induced in this way is called
dynamically induced emf
 Statically induced emf
• The statically induced emf may be:
(i) Self induced emf
(ii) Mutually induced emf
• By changing the flux linking with the coil (or conductor)
without moving either coil or field system. However, the
change of flux produced by the field system linking with the
coil is obtained by changing the current in the field system as
in transformers.
Electromechanical energy conversion device

• A device (machine) which makes possible the

conversion of energy from electrical to
mechanical form or from mechanical to
electrical form
• Motor
• Generator
Motor:
• Motor: An electro-mechanical device
(electrical machine) which converts electrical
energy or power (EI) into mechanical energy
is called a motor
Generator:
• An electro-mechanical device (electrical
machine) which converts mechanical energy
or power into electrical energy or power is
called generator
Constructional Features of DC Machine:
• A DC Machine is constructed with:
1.Stator
2.Rotor
3.Yoke
4.Poles
5.Field windings
6.Armature windings
7.Commutator
8.Brushes
yoke:
• The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles
and inter poles are fixed is called yoke..
• It protects the internal machine parts like
armature, windings, field poles, etc. against
mechanical damages.
• The yoke houses the magnetic field system.
• It provides a low reluctance path to the working
magnetic flux.
• It supports the rotor or armature through bearings.
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
There are two main types of pole construction.
• The pole core itself may be a solid piece made out of
either cast iron or cast steel but the pole shoe is
laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means of
countersunk screws
• In modern design, they are built of thin laminations of
annealed steel which are riveted together under hydraulic
pressure. The thickness of laminations varies from 1 mm to
0.25 mm.
Armature:
• The working torque and EMF are developed in coils of the
armature. The armature consists of two main parts
namely, armature core and armature winding.
• The armature core is a solid cylindrical structure, made up of
high permeability thin silicon steel laminations.
• The outer periphery of the core slots are cut to carry the
armature winding.
Armature Winding:
• The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably
connected. This is known as armature winding. The armature winding
acts as the heart of a DC machine. It is a place where one form of
power is converted to the other form.
• Lap Winding
• In this case the number of parallel paths between conductors A is
equal to the number of poles P.
i.e A = P
• Wave Winding
• Here in this case, the number of parallel paths between conductors A
is always equal to 2 irrespective of the number of poles
Commutator:

• It is basically mechanical rectifier and is made up of

copper. The outer periphery of the commutator has V-
shaped slots to carry commutator segment.
The commutator performs the following two major
functions
• In a DC generator, it collects the current from the
armature conductor. In a DC motor, it supplies the current
to the armature conductors.
• It converts the alternating current of the armature into
unidirectional current in the external circuit with the help
of brushes,.
Brushes:
• Brushes are used to make an electrical connection
with the rotating commutator. These collect (or
supply) current from (or to) the moving commutator.
Brushes are usually made up of carbon..
Bearings:
• Bearings are used in the DC machine to reduce
the frictional losses. Thus, the main function
of bearings in the DC machine is to support
the machine shaft with minimum friction. In
DC machines, ball bearings or roller bearings
are commonly used.
Operation of Machine as a Generator:

• The basic principle of a DC generator is electro-magnetic induction i.e.,

“When a conductor cuts across the magnetic field, an emf is induced in it.”
Simple Loop Generator:
Function of Commutator:
The function of commutator is to convert the
alternating current produced in the armature into direct
current in the external circuit.
Types of DC Generators

• D.C. generators are generally classified according to the

methods of their field excitation.
They can be classified as:
1. Separately excited DC generators
2. Self excited DC generators –
(i) Shunt wound DC generators
(ii) Series wound DC generators
(iii) Compound wound DC generators.
(a) Long shunt compound wound generators
(b) Short shunt compound wound generators.
Shunt wound generators:

• In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected

across the armature winding forming a parallel or shunt
circuit. Therefore, full terminal voltage is applied across the
field winding. A very small current I sh flows through it
because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very
high resistance Rsh (of the order of 100 ohm).
 Series Wound Generators:
• In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in
series with the armature winding forming a series circuit.
Therefore, full line current IL or armature current I a flows
through it. Since the series field winding carries full load
current, it has a few turns of thick wire having low resistance
(usually of the order of less than one ohm).
 Compound Wound Generators
• In a compound wound generator, there are two sets of field
windings on each pole. One of them is connected in series
(having few turns of thick wire) and the other is connected in
parallel (having many turns of fine wire) with armature.
Cumulatively and Differentially Compound-
wound Generators
• In compound wound DC generators, the field is produced by
the shunt as well as series winding. Generally the shunt field
is stronger than the series field. When the series field assist
the shunt field, the generator is called as cumulatively
compound wound generator. However, when the series field
opposes the shunt field, the generator is known as
differentially compound wound generator
 Characteristics of DC Generators :

1. No-load characteristics. It is also known as magnetic

characteristics or open-circuit characteristics (O.C.C.). It
shows the relation between the no-load generated emf in
the armature (E0) and the field current (i.e., exciting current)
If , at a specified speed.
2. External characteristics. It is also called the performance
characteristics. It shows the relation between the terminal
voltage (V) and the load current IL.
3. Internal Characteristics. It is also known as total
characteristics. It gives the relation between the emf actually
induced in the armature (E g ) and the armature current I a
No-load Characteristics
 Critical Field Resistance of a DC Shunt
Generator
• The line OX is drawn in such a way that its slope gives the field
winding resistance