Established as per the Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956

Approved by AICTE, COA and BCI, New Delhi

Data Communications
School of Computer Science and Engineering

D r. Ye r r i s w a m y T
y e r r i s w a m y. t @ r e v a . e d u . i n
AY: 2023-2024
Data Communications
D e fi n i t i o n
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Definition

When we communicate, we are sharing information.

The sharing can be local or remote.

Telecommunication includes telephony, television.

Communication at a distance (tele is Greek for “far”).

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium.
Data Communications
Characteristics
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Characteristics
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics.

The system must deliver data

1. to the correct destination

Jitter refers to the variation in Delivery

the packet arrival time.

4. 2.
Jitter Accuracy
Data that have been altered
in transmission and left
3. uncorrected are unusable
The system must deliver data in a
timely manner. Data delivered late Timeliness
are useless.
Data Communications
Components
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Components
1. Message: is the data to be communicated - text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video

2. Sender: is the device that sends the data message - computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera.

3. Receiver: is the device that receives the message - a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television.

4. Transmission medium: is the path by which a message travels from sender to receiver -
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol: is a set of rules that govern data communications, an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Components
Data Communications
Data Flow
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Flow

Simplex mode

Half-duplex
mode

Full-duplex
mode
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Flow

Simplex mode

Half-duplex
mode

Full-duplex
mode
Data Communications
Data Representation
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Representation Numbers

Text

Images

Video Audio
Data Communications
D a t a R e p r e s e n t a t i o n - Te x t
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Representation - Text

Text is represented as a bit pattern- a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).

The set of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols is called a code.

Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Representation - Text
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
Data Communications
Data Representation- Numbers
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Representation -
Numbers
Data -Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.

ASCII code is not used to represent numbers.

The number is converted to a binary digits.

Integers Numbers • 25 = 11001

Negative Numbers • -125(10) = 1000 0011

Data Communications
Data Representation- Image
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Representation - Image
Images are also represented by bit patterns.
An image is composed of a matrix of pixels, where each pixel is a small dot.
The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.

After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern.

For an image made of only black-

and-white dots, a 1-bit pattern is
enough to represent a pixel.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Representation - Image
Gray scale mechanism - four levels of gray scale,
you can use 2-bit patterns. A black pixel can be
represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light
gray pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11.

RGB Model -each color is made of a combination

of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The
intensity of each color is measured, and a bit
pattern is assigned to it.
Data Communications
Data Representation- Audio
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Representation - Audio

Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of

sound or music.

Audio is by nature different from text, numbers,

or images.

It is continuous, not discrete.

Even when we use a microphone to change

voice or music to an electric signal, we create a
continuous signal.
Data Communications
Data Representation- Video
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Representation - Video

Video refers to the recording or broadcasting

of a picture or movie.

Video can either be produced as a

continuous entity (TV, camera), or it can be a
combination of images.

we can change video to a digital or an analog

signal.
Networks
To p i c o f t h e L e c t u r e
TOPIC OF THE LECTURE

Describe Network

Describe Internet

Know the evolution of Internet

Different criteria’s of a good network

The ways of connecting the nodes in a network

Ways of representing the network physically

Networks
D e fi n i t i o n
NETWORKS
Definition - Network

A group of interconnected people or things.

A group of two or more devices that can communicate.

Desktop computers, laptops, mainframes, and servers,

Smartphones and tablets.

Bridges, Repeaters, Switches, hubs, modems, and

routers.

Information exchange, Resource sharing

NETWORKS
Definition - Internet

Consisting of interconnected networks using standardized

communication protocols
Two or more networks can communicate with each other.

Internet will be as backbone,

provider, customer network.
Networks
History of Internet
NETWORKS
History of Internet

Telegraph and • Before 1960

Telephone • constant rate communications, encoded(telegraph) or voice (telephone)
networks • Bursty data transmission, variable rate, different timings.

• Started at 1961, proved at 1965. MIT Lab

Packet-switched • Bursty data transmission, variable rate, different timings.
networks • method of grouping data that is transmitted over a digital network into
packets.
• Before 1967- Stand alone devices.
• 1969. Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
ARPANET • Small network of computers – interface message processor.
• Network Control Protocol
NETWORKS
History of Internet

• In 1972 –Vint Cerf & Bob Kahn

Internetting • Link dissimilar networks.
• Diverse in packet sizes, interfaces, transmission rates.

• In 1973
TCP/IP • End to end delivery of data – encapsulation, datagram, gateway functions.
• In 1983 – official protocol for accessing internet.

• In 1983
MILNET • ARPANET – for military network (MILNET) and for non-military users.
NETWORKS
History of Internet

• In 1981 – Computer Science Network by NSF

CSNET • Organizations (US) wanted to be part of ARPANET
• Less expensive, no redundant links, lower transmission rate.

• In 1986 – National Science Foundation Network – US govt.

NSFNET • Backbone network – 1.544Mbps data rate.
• In 1990– NSFNET replaces ARPANET

• In 1991 – NSFNET not capable for rapidly increasing internet traffic.

ANSNET • IBM, Merit, Verizon – Advanced Network Services (ANS)
• High speed internet backbone
NETWORKS
History of Internet

• In 1990 – World Wide Web

WWW • information system – documents and web resources are identified Uniform
Resource Locators interlinked by hypertext and accessible over Internet.

• Voice over IP – telephony

• Video over IP – Skype
Multimedia • View sharing – YouTube
• Television over IP - PPLive

• The Peer-To-Peer communication - eliminates the need for a central server

Peer to Peer • Peer-To-Peer networking - every connected user the same responsibilities
applications • search engines, audio and video casting, Mobile applications, E-commerce
Networks
Network Criteria
NETWORKS
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet important criteria’s

Performance

Security Reliability
NETWORKS
Network Criteria - Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways: transit time and response
time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from
one device to another.

Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

Performance
NETWORKS
Network Criteria - Performance
The performance of a network depends on:

The number of users The type of transmission medium The efficiency of the software.

Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.

Network delay refers to the
throughput is the rate at the rate of successful
amount of time it takes for a
which something is message delivery over a
packet to go from one point
processed. communication channel.
to other

throughput

delay.
NETWORKS
Network Criteria - Reliability

Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the

time it takes a link to recover from a failure.

The probability of the system keep being available (not fail) over
certain period of time.
NETWORKS
Network Criteria - Security

• protecting data from unauthorized access,

• protecting data from damage and development,
Network security issues • implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and
data losses.

•
Network •
Authentication
Confidentiality
Security • Integrity
services • Non-repudiation
Networks
Ty p e o f C o n n e c t i o n
NETWORKS
Type of Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links.

A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.

Multi Point-
point to-Point
NETWORKS
Type of Connection – Point to
Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
use wire or cable to connect the two ends
microwave or satellite links are also possible.
NETWORKS
Type of Connection –
Multipoint
A multipoint connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link.
The capacity of the channel is shared
spatially shared connection
timeshared connection
Networks
P h y s i c a l To p o l o g y
NETWORKS
Physical Topology

The way in which a network is laid out physically.

Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.

The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links
and linking devices to one another.
NETWORKS
Physical Topology - Mesh

Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.

Dedicated link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects
Each node must be connected to every other node, node n must be connected to n − 1 nodes.
Physical links to connect n nodes --> n (n − 1) using Simplex, duplex?

• Telephone Regional Office

Ap
pli • P2P Networks
cat • WAN
io
ns:
NETWORKS
Physical Topology - Mesh
Advantages:

1) Eliminates the traffic problems.

2) A mesh topology is robust
3) Provides privacy or security.
4) Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Disadvantages:
1) Installation and reconnection are difficult
2) Expensive.
NETWORKS
Physical Topology - Star
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller.
central controller usually called a hub.

The devices are not directly linked to one another.

The controller acts as an exchange

Ap • High-speed LANs
pli • Homes and offices.
cat
io
ns:
NETWORKS
Physical Topology - Star
Advantages:

1) less expensive than a mesh topology.

2) It is easy to install and reconfigure.

3) Its robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected.

Disadvantages:

1) The dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down,
the whole system is dead.
NETWORKS
Physical Topology - Bus
A bus topology, is multipoint.

One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.

A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a
cable to create a contact with the metallic core.

Ap • Ethernet LANs can use a bus

pli topology
cat • Connecting multiple buildings
io
ns:
NETWORKS
Physical Topology - Bus
Advantages:

1) Ease of installation.

2) less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

3) Redundancy is eliminated

Disadvantages:

1) Difficult for reconnection and fault isolation.

2) A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission

NETWORKS
Physical Topology - Ring
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either
side of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its
destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater
When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the
bits and passes them along.

Ap
pli • LAN inside an office/building
cat
io
ns:
NETWORKS
Physical Topology - Ring
Advantages:

1) Ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.

2) To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.

3) Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantages:

1) Unidirectional traffic.

2) A break in the ring can disable the entire network.

NETWORKS
Physical Topology - Hybrid
Combination of multiple topology

• Automated Industry.
Ap
pli • Banks.
cat • Research Organizations.
io
ns:
Classification of Networks
LAN
CLASSIFICATION OF
NETWORKS
LAN - Local Area Network
A local area network is privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building, or
campus.

A LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office

It can extend throughout a company and include audio and video peripherals.

LAN size is limited to a few kilometers (less than 2 miles)

Every host has an identifier, an address.

CLASSIFICATION OF
NETWORKS
LAN - Local Area Network
CLASSIFICATION OF
NETWORKS
LAN - Local Area Network
CLASSIFICATION OF
NETWORKS
LAN - Local Area Network
LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or
workstations.
The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an
application program), or data.
LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their transmission media and
topology.
A given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium

The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.

Speed - normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.

Classification of Networks
WA N
CLASSIFICATION OF
NETWORKS
WAN - Wide Area Network

A wide area network is also an interconnection of devices for communications.

Provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video information over
large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.

A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a
dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet.

switched WAN and point-to-point WAN.

CLASSIFICATION OF
NETWORKS
WAN - Wide Area Network
Classification of Networks
O t h e r Ty p e s
CLASSIFICATION OF
NETWORKS
Other Types
Protocols and Standards
Protocols
PROTOCOLS AND
STANDARDS
Protocols
Protocol, which is synonymous with rule. Standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.

A protocol defines what is communicated,

how it is communicated, and

when it is communicated.
PROTOCOLS AND
STANDARDS
Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in
different systems.

An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information.

However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams to each other
and expect to be understood.

For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.

PROTOCOLS AND
STANDARDS
Protocols
The key elements of a protocol
• The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the
Syntax. data, meaning the order in which they are presented.

• The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section

Semantics. of bits.

• The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data

Timing. should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
PROTOCOLS AND
STANDARDS
Protocols
Examples

HTTP FTP SMTP IP RIP OSPF

• Hypertext • File • Simple • Internet • Routing • Open

Transfer Transfer Mail Protocol Informati Shortest
Protocol Protocol Transfer on Path First
Protocol Protocol
Protocols and Standards
Standards
PROTOCOLS AND
STANDARDS
Standards
Protocol, which is synonymous with rule. Standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market
for equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international
interoperability of data and telecommunications technology and processes.

two categories:

de facto de jure
( “by fact” or “by (“by law” or “by
convention”) regulation”).
PROTOCOLS AND
STANDARDS
Internet Standards
Internet Standards

Internet Draft

Request for Comment(RFC)

Maturity Levels
PROTOCOLS AND
STANDARDS
Internet Administration

ISOC
IAB
IETF
IRTF
Layered Tasks & OSI model
Introduction
LAYERED TASKS & OSI
MODEL
Introduction

We use the concept of layers in our daily life.

Let us consider two friends who communicate through postal mail.

LAYERED TASKS & OSI
MODEL
Tasks involved in sending a
letter
LAYERED TASKS & OSI
MODEL
Need for Layering

Allows Complex problems are decomposed in to small manageable units.

Implementation details of the layer are abstracted. Separation of implementation and

specification

Layers are work as one by sharing the services provided by each other.

Layering allows reuse functionality i.e., lower layers implement common once.

Provide framework to implement multiple specific protocols per layer

Layered Tasks & OSI model
Layered Architecture
LAYERED TASKS & OSI
MODEL
Layered Architecture

International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide

agreement on international standards.

ISO standard covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.

The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

LAYERED TASKS & OSI
MODEL
Seven layers of OSI model

User interface layers

Network interface
layers
LAYERED TASKS & OSI
MODEL
OSI model
LAYERED TASKS & OSI
MODEL
Interaction between layers in the OSI
model Interfaces between Layers
peer-to-peer processes.
Layered Tasks & OSI model
Encapsulation
LAYERED TASKS & OSI
MODEL
Encapsulation
The data portion of a packet at level N - 1 carries the whole packet (data and header and
maybe trailer) from level N. The concept is called encapsulation.
Layers in OSI model
Physical Layer
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to
the next.
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Functions of Physical Layer
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium.

Representation of bits.

Data rate

Synchronization of bits.

Line configuration

Physical topology

Transmission mode
Layers in OSI model
Data link Layer
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Data link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Functions of Data link Layer

Framing

Physical Addressing

Flow Control

Error Control

Access control
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Data link Layer: Hop-to-hop
delivery
Layers in OSI model
Network Layer
 LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to
the destination host.
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Functions of Network Layer

Logical addressing

Routing
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Network Layer: Source-to-destination
delivery
Layers in OSI model
Tr a n s p o r t L a y e r
 LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.
 LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Transport Layer
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message.
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Functions of Transport Layer

Service-point addressing

Segmentation and reassembly

Flow Control

Error Control

Connection control
Layers in OSI model
Session Layer
 LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Functions of Session Layer

Dialog control

Synchronization
Layers in OSI model
Presentation Layer
 LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Functions of Presentation
Layer
Translation

Encryption

Compression
Layers in OSI model
Application Layer
 LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Application Layer
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Services of Application Layer

Network virtual terminal

File transfer, access, and management

Mail services

Directory services
LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
Summary of Layers
TCP/IP Protocol suite
Introduction
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Introduction

TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.
The first four layers provide physical standards, network interfaces, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model
The three topmost layers in the OSI model, are represented in TCP/IP by a single layer called the
application layer.

Error Control
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP and OSI model
TCP/IP Protocol suite
Physical and Data link Layer
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Functions of Physical Layer

Carrying individual bits

Transmission media

Signal transmission

Conversion between bits and

signals
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Functions of Data link Layer

Framing

Error handling

Physical Addressing

Error Control
At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol.
TCP/IP Protocol suite
Network Layer
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Functions of Network Layer

Creating network Internet Protocol

Routing Address Resolution Protocol

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

Internet Control Message Protocol

Internet Group Message Protocol

TCP/IP Protocol suite
Tr a n s p o r t L a y e r
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Functions of Transport Layer

End to end communication

Process to process delivary

User Datagram Protocol

Transmission Control Protocol

Stream Control Transmission Protocol

TCP/IP Protocol suite
Application Layer
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Functions of Application Layer

The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model.

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

Error Control
File Transfer Protocol

Domain Name System

Addressing
Ty p e s o f a d d r e s s i n g
ADDRESSING
Types of addressing
ADDRESSING
Addressing in TCP/IP
Addressing
Physical Addresses
 ADDRESSING
Physical Addresses

It is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.

It is included in the frame used by the data link layer. It is the lowest-level address.

Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address that is imprinted on the network interface card
(NIC).
 ADDRESSING
Physical Addresses -
Représentation
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits;
every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon.

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

 ADDRESSING
Physical Addresses
node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87.
The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN).
ADDRESSING
Physical Addresses
Addressing
Logical Addresses
 ADDRESSING
Logical Addresses

Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying
physical networks.

A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32 or 128-bit address that can uniquely define a
host connected to the Internet.

No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same IP address.
ADDRESSING
Logical Addresses -
Représentation
 ADDRESSING
Logical Addresses
Each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses.
ADDRESSING
Logical Addresses
Addressing
Port Addresses
 ADDRESSING
Port Addresses

Computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time. The end objective of
Internet communication is a process communicating with another process.
Note that although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain
the same from the source to destination

A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.

3000

A 16-bit port address represented as one single number

.
 ADDRESSING
Port Addresses
The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the logical and port addresses usually
remain the same.
Addressing
S p e c i fi c A d d r e s s e s
 ADDRESSING
Specific Addresses

Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address.

Note that although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain
the same from the source to destination

E-mail Address.

URL (Universal Resource Locator).

Switched Networks
Introduction
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Introduction

A network is a set of connected devices

Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the problem of how to connect them to make
one-to-one communication possible.

A better solution is switching.

A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches.

Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more
devices linked to the switch.
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Introduction

Some of the nodes are connected to the end systems (computers or telephones).

Others are used only for routing.

Switched Networks
Ta x o n o m y
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Taxonomy
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Taxonomy
Switching in TCP/IP Layers
Switching at
Circuit No Packet
Physical Signal Transfer
Switching exchange
Layer
Switching at
Packet Packet here – virtual circuit
Data-Link
Switching frames approach
Layer
Switching at
Packet virtual circuit or
Network
Switching Datagram
Layer
Switching at
Message
Application
Switching
Layer
Switched Networks
Message Switching
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Message Switching
Each switch stores the whole message and
forwards it to the next switch.
Entire messages multiplexed onto shared lines,
stored & forwarded
Headers for source & destination addresses

Routing at message switches

Connectionless

Message switching invented for telegraphy

SWITCHED NETWORKS
Message Switching
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Message Switching - Delay

Additional queueing delays possible at each link

Switched Networks
Circuit Switched Network
 SWITCHED NETWORKS
Circuit-Switched Network
A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links.
A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.
Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
 SWITCHED NETWORKS
Circuit-Switched Network - Three Phases

Before the two parties can

communicate, a dedicated circuit
1. Connection (combination of channels in links) needs
Setup to be established.

When one of the parties needs 3.

to disconnect, a signal is sent Connection 2. Data
to each switch to release the Teardown Transfer After the establishment of the
resources. dedicated circuit (channels), the
two parties can transfer data.
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Circuit-Switched Network - Three
Phases
Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.

In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase.

There is no addressing involved during data transfer.

Circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two types of networks.
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Circuit-Switched Network - Three
Phases
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Circuit-Switched Network - Delay
The delay is minimal. The total delay is the time needed to create the connection, transfer
data, and disconnect the circuit.

There is no waiting time at each switch.

SWITCHED NETWORKS
Circuit-Switched Network - Applications

Public Telephone Networks (PSTN)

Private Branch Exchanges (PBX)

Private Wide Area Networks

Data Switch
Switched Networks
Packet Switching
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Packet Switching
In packet-switched network, message is divided into packets of fixed or variable size.

The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol.

Lack of reservation may create delay.

There is no resource reservation;

resources are allocated on demand.
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Message Switching vs Circuit Switching vs Packet
Switching Circuit
Message Packet
Switching Switching Switching
Telephone Internet for
Telegraph network, transfer datagram and
Application network of voice signals reliable stream
service

End Telegraph, Telephone,

Teletype Modem Computer
terminal

Informatio Analog Voice, Binary

Morse, ASCII
n Type Digital Voice Information
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Message Switching vs Circuit Switching vs Packet
Switching Circuit
Message Packet
Switching Switching Switching

Addressing Geographical Hierarchical Hierarchical

Scheme Addresses numbering plan address plan

Route selected Each packet

Routing Manual
during call setup routed
Scheme
independently
Character or Packet
Multiplex Circuit
message multiplexing
Scheme multiplexing
multiplexing shared media
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Packet Switching - Types

Datagram Networks

Virtual Circuit Switching Network.

Switched Networks
Datagram Switching
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Datagram Switching
The message that passes through a packet-switched network needs to be divided into
packets of fixed or variable size.
The size of the packet is determined by the network.

Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer.

There is no resource allocation for a packet. Resources are allocated on demand.

The allocation is done on a first-come-first-served basis.

In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others.

Packets in this approach are referred to as datagrams.

SWITCHED NETWORKS
Datagram Switching
The switches in a datagram network are traditionally referred to as routers.

The datagram networks are referred as connectionless networks.

SWITCHED NETWORKS
Datagram Switching- Routing
table
A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the destination address.

The routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically.

The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output ports are recorded in
the tables.
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Datagram Switching- Destination address
Every packet in a datagram network carries a header that contains other information with
the destination address of the packet.

When the switch receives the packet, this destination address is examined; the routing table
is consulted to find the corresponding port through which the packet should be forwarded.

The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram network remains the same
during the entire journey of the packet.

The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a

circuit-switched network as resources are allocated only when
there are packets to be transferred.
 SWITCHED NETWORKS
Datagram Switching-Delay
There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit network.
Each packet may wait at a switch before it is forwarded.

transmission times (3T)

propagation delays (slopes 3τ)

waiting times (w 1 + w 2)
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching

A virtual-circuit network is combination of a circuit-switched network and a datagram

network

The network has switches that allow traffic from sources to destinations

A source or destination can be a computer, packet switch, bridge, or any other device that
connects other networks.
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching -
Addressing
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: Global and Local (virtual-
circuit identifier) addresses.

Global Addressing: address that can be unique in the scope of the network.

Virtual-Circuit Identifier (VCI): The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called
the VCI. A VCI, is a small number that has scope within the switch.

Each switch can use its own unique set of VCIs.

 SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching -
Addressing

Virtual-circuit identifier (VCI)

Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching -
Phases

Connection Setup phase

Data Transfer phase

Teardown phase
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching - Connection Setup phase

In the setup phase, the source and destination use their global addresses to help
switches make table entries for the connection.

In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit. For example,
suppose source A needs to create a virtual circuit to B.

It involves the setup request and the acknowledgment steps.

SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching - Connection Setup phase

Setup Request A setup request frame is sent from the source to the destination.
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching - Connection Setup phase
A special frame, called the acknowledgment frame, completes
Acknowledgment the entries in the routing tables.
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching - Data Transfer phase
The table holds four pieces of information for each virtual circuit that is already set up.

The data transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frames to the
destination.
SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching – Teardown
phase
source A, after sending all frames to B, sends a special frame called a
teardown request.

Destination B responds with a teardown confirmation frame.

All switches delete the corresponding entry from their tables.

SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Switching -Delay

Here, all packets belonging to the same source and destination travel the same path.
The packets may arrive at the destination with different delays if resource allocation is on
demand.
Datagram Switching Message Switching

Delay Comparison
SWITCHED NETWORKS

Virtual Circuit Switching Circuit Switching

 SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Networks vs Datagram Switched Networks
Key Virtual Circuits Datagram Networks
Virtual Circuit is the connection oriented
service in which there is a implementation of Datagram is the connection less service
Definition resources like buffers, CPU, bandwidth, etc., where no such resources are required for the
used by virtual circuit for a data transfer data transmission.
session.
In Virtual circuits as all the resources and In Datagram network, the path is not fixed as
bandwidth get reserved before the data packets are free to decide the path on
transmission, the path which is utilized or
Path followed by first data packet would get fixed any intermediate router on the go by
and all other data packets will use the same dynamically changing routing tables on
path and consume same resources. routers.
As there is same path followed by all the data different headers with information of other
Header packets, a common and same header is being data packet is being used in Datagram
used by all the packets. network.
 SWITCHED NETWORKS
Virtual Circuit Networks vs Datagram Switched Networks
Key Virtual Circuits Datagram Networks
Virtual Circuit is less complex as compared However on other hand Datagram network
Complexity are more complex as compared to Virtual
to that of Datagram network. circuit.
Due to fixed path and assurance of fixed On other hand Datagram network due to
resources, Virtual Circuits are more reliable dynamic resource allocation and follow
Reliability for data transmission as compared to dynamic path is more prone to error and is
Datagram network. less reliable than Virtual circuits.
Virtual circuits are costlier in installation and On the other hand Datagram network are
maintenance and are widely used
Example and Cost (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Network, by ATM cheaper as compared to the Virtual Circuits
and are mainly used by IP network, which
which is used for the Telephone calls. is used for Data services like Internet.
Transmission Media
Introduction
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Introduction
Transmission media can be defined as anything that can carry information from a source to
destination.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Classification
Transmission Media
G u i d e d M e d i a - Tw i s t e d P a i r C a b l e
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Twisted-Pair Cable

Twisted-pair cable

Two types of Twisted-pair

cables: UTP and STP cables
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Twisted-Pair Cable

UTP connectors: The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)
which can be inserted in UTP
only connectors
one way.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Twisted-Pair Cable
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

UTP connectors
Transmission Media
Guided Media- Coaxial Cable
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted-pair cable.
Twisted-pair cable
Coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an
insulating sheath.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Coaxial Cable
BNC connectors

Twisted-pair cable
Used to connect the end of the
cable to a device such as TV set. Used at the end of the cable to
prevent the reflection of the signal.

Used in Ethernet networks to branch out a

connection to a computer or other device.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Coaxial Cable

Categories of coaxial cables.

Twisted-pair cable
Transmission Media
Guided Media-Fiber Optic Cable
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. Twisted-pair cable

A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable

The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon.

Twisted-pair cable
Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen the cable.

Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of
the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.
Transmission Media
U n - G u i d e d M e d i a : W I R E L E SS
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Un-Guided Media: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.

Twisted-pair
Signals are broadcast through free space and are available to anyone who hascable
a device
capable of receiving them.
Wireless data is transmitted through ground propagation, sky propagation and line-of-sight
propagation.
Transmission Media
U n - G u i de d M ed i a : R a di o Wa v e s
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves.
Twisted-pair cable
Radio waves are transmitted in all directions (omnidirectional). This means that the sending
and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
Radio waves propagate long distances and are suitable for long
distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
The radio wave band is under government regulation and needs
permission from authorities for using any part of the band.
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio
and television, and paging systems.
Transmission Media
Un-Guided Media: Microwaves
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Microwaves

Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.

Microwaves are unidirectional. Twisted-pair cable

sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as
cellular telephones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.
Microwave communication needs
unidirectional antennas.
Transmission Media
U n - G u i de d M ed i a : In fr a r ed Wa v es
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Infrared Waves

Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies from 300GHz to 400 THz are Infrared waves.
Infrared waves, can be used for short-range Twisted-pair cable
communication.
Infrared waves, having high frequencies,
cannot penetrate walls.
Microwave communication needs
unidirectional antennas.
Analog & Digital Signals
Introduction
ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Introduction

Data can be analog or digital.

The term analog data refers to information that is continuous.

digital data refers to information that has discrete states.

Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values.
ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Introduction
ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Introduction

Analog signals can have an infinite number of values

in a range.

digital signals can have only a limited number of

values.
Analog & Digital Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Periodic and Nonperiodic
Signals
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a period.

A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time.
Analog & Digital Signals
S i n e Wa v e
ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Sine Wave
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.

it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the course of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a
continuous, rolling flow
 ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Sine Wave
A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency, and the
phase.
The peak amplitude of a signal is the
absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries.
1. Peak Amplitude

3. Frequency 2. Phase
Frequency is the rate of change
with respect to time. The term phase describes the
position of the waveform relative to
time zero (0).
ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Sine Wave- Peak amplitude
Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes.
ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Sine Wave - Frequency and period

Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Sine Wave - Frequency and period
The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz (50 Hz in Europe). The period of this
sine wave can be determined as follows:

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?

First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from the
period (1 Hz = 10 ^ − 3 kHz).
ANALOG SIGNALS & DIGITAL
SIGNALS
Sine Wave- Phases
Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency, but different phases.
Analog Signals & Digital Signals
Wa v el en g t h
ANALOG SIGNALS & DIGITAL
SIGNALS
Wavelength
The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period.

Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of
the medium
ANALOG SIGNALS & DIGITAL
SIGNALS
Wavelength

The wavelength is normally measured in micrometers (microns). For example, the

wavelength of red light (frequency = 4 × 10 14) in air is
Analog Signals & Digital Signals
Bandwidth
ANALOG SIGNALS & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.
ANALOG SIGNALS & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Bandwidth
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300,
500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Let f h be the highest frequency, f l the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth
ANALOG SIGNALS & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Bandwidth
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle frequency of
140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0.
Draw the frequency domain of the signal.
Data Rate Limits
Introduction
DATA RATE LIMITS
Introduction
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, over a
channel.

Data rate depends on three factors: bandwidth availability, Level of the signals we use,
quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Two theoretical formulas used to calculate the data rate:

Nyquist for a noiseless channel

Shannon for a noisy channel.

Data Rate Limits
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit
Rate
DATA RATE LIMITS
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2 L

Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels

used to represent data, and Bit Rate is the bit rate in bits per second.

Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of the system.
DATA RATE LIMITS
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two
signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for each
level, we send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Data Rate Limits
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
DATA RATE LIMITS
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy.

The Shannon capacity, determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy
channel.

Capacity =bandwidth X log2 (1 +SNR)

Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio,

and capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second
DATA RATE LIMITS
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost
zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the
capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In other
words, we cannot receive any data through this channel.
DATA RATE LIMITS
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A telephone line
normally has a bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel
the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send
data faster than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-
to-noise ratio.
Data Rate Limits
Performance
 DATA RATE LIMITS
Performance

Number of bits per second that a channel, a

link, or even a network can transmit.

1. Bandwidth

how long it takes for an entire

message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first 3. Latency It measures how fast we can
2. Throughput
bit is sent out from the source. (Delay) actually send data through a
network
DATA RATE LIMITS
Performance - bandwidth

Bandwidth in Bits per

Bandwidth in Hertz Relationship
Seconds

Bandwidth in hertz is the The term bandwidth can also

Basically, an increase in
range of frequencies a refer to the number of bits
bandwidth in hertz means an
channel can pass. Ex, the per second that a channel, a
increase in bandwidth in bits
bandwidth of a subscriber link can transmit. Ex, the
per second.
telephone line is 4 kHz. network can send 100 Mbps.
DATA RATE LIMITS
Performance - Latency (Delay)
Latency= propagation time + transmission time + queuing time + processing time

Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to
the destination.
Transmission time measures the time required for transmission of a whole
message
queuing time measures time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold
the message before it can be processed
DATA RATE LIMITS
Performance - Throughput

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per
minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network?

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

DATA RATE LIMITS
Performance - Propagation Time

What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km? Assume
the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 10^8 m/s in cable.

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct
cable between the source and the destination.
DATA RATE LIMITS
Performance - Transmission time

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image)
if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the sender
and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a
direct cable between the source and the destination.
Overview of PCM and DM
PCM
OVERVIEW OF PCM AND DM
PCM-Introduction
To convert an analog signal to digital data we use two techniques, pulse code
modulation(PCM) and delta modulation(DM).

PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog signal: Sampling, Quantization, Binary
encoding.
OVERVIEW OF PCM AND DM
PCM- Sampling
Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.

fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.

The process is referred to as pulse amplitude modulation PAM and the outcome is a
signal with analog (non integer) values.
OVERVIEW OF PCM AND DM
PCM- Quantization
OVERVIEW OF PCM AND DM
PCM- example of Quantization and encoding
OVERVIEW OF PCM AND DM
PCM- Decoder
To recover an analog signal from a digitized signal we use PCM Decoder.
Overview of PCM and DM
Delta Modulation (DM)
OVERVIEW OF PCM AND DM
DM
To overcome the complexity of PCM, DM technique is used.

This scheme sends only the difference between pulses

if the pulse at time tn+1 is higher in amplitude value than the pulse at time tn, then a
single bit, say a “1”, is used to indicate the positive value.

If the pulse is lower in value, resulting in a negative value, a “0” is used.

This scheme works well for small changes in signal values between samples.

If changes in amplitude are large, this will result in large errors.

OVERVIEW OF PCM AND DM
DM-Process
Process of delta modulation
OVERVIEW OF PCM AND DM
DM-Components
Delta modulation components
OVERVIEW OF PCM AND DM
DM-Demodulator
The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker and the delay
unit, creates the analog signal.

Created analog signal, needs to pass through a low-pass filter for smoothing.
Transmission Modes and
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Tr a n s m i s s i o n M o d e s
TRANSMISSION MODES &ANALOG-TO-ANALOG
Transmission Modes
CONVERSION
The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode.
 TRANSMISSION MODES &ANALOG-TO-ANALOG
Transmission Modes - Serial and Parallel
CONVERSION
transmission

In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.

In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each

clock tick.
 TRANSMISSION MODES &ANALOG-TO-ANALOG
Transmission Modes – Asynchronous and
CONVERSION
Synchronous

In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start

bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits
(1s) at the end of each byte. There may be a gap
between each byte.

In synchronous transmission, we send

bits one after another without start or
stop bits or gaps.
Transmission Modes and
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
TRANSMISSION MODES &ANALOG-TO-ANALOG
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
CONVERSION
Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog information by an analog signal.

Modulation of analog signal is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a

bandpass channel is available to us.
TRANSMISSION MODES &ANALOG-TO-ANALOG
Analog-to-Analog Conversion - Amplitude
CONVERSION
Modulation
the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing amplitudes of
the modulating signal.

The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the amplitude changes.
TRANSMISSION MODES &ANALOG-TO-ANALOG
Analog-to-Analog Conversion - Frequency
CONVERSION
Modulation
the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level
(amplitude) of the modulating signal.

The amplitude and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the frequency changes.
TRANSMISSION MODES &ANALOG-TO-ANALOG
Analog-to-Analog Conversion - Phase Modulation
CONVERSION
the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level (amplitude)
of the modulating signal.

The amplitude and frequency of the carrier remain the same; only the phase changes.
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Introduction
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Introduction
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an
analog signal based on the information in digital data.
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Types
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an
analog signal based on the information in digital data.
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Aspects

Data Element • A data element is the smallest piece of information to be exchanged, the bit. A
Versus Signal signal element is the smallest unit of a signal that is constant.
Element • Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers.

• The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s. bits per
Data Rate Versus second (bps).
Signal Rate • The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s. The unit is the baud.

• In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency signal

Carrier Signal that acts as a base for the information signal.
• This base signal is called the carrier signal or carrier frequency.
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
ASK
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
ASK
In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.
• ASK is implemented using two levels.
Binary • This is referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK).
ASK • The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is the same as the
amplitude of the carrier frequency.
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
BASK
Implementation
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
FSK
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
FSK
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements. Both amplitude and phase remain constant while the frequency changes.

• FSK is implemented using two levels.

Binary • two carrier frequencies, f 1 and f 2. We use the first carrier if the data
FSK
element is 0; we use the second if the data element is 1.
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
BFSK
Implementation
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
PSK
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
PSK
In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements.
Both amplitude and frequency remain constant while the phase changes.

Binary • In binary PSK we have two signal elements, one with a phase of 0°, and the
PSK other with a phase of 180°. Advantage—it is less susceptible to noise.
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
BPSK
Implementation
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
QPSK
Implementation
THANK YOU