UNIT I – BASIC CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

– Circuit elements
– Kirchhoff’s Law
– V-I Relationship of R,L and C
– Independent and Dependent sources
– Simple Resistive circuits
– Networks reduction
– Voltage division
– current source transformation.
- Analysis of circuit using mesh current and nodal voltage
methods.

1 Methods of
Analysis
Resistance

Methods of
Analysis
Ohm’s Law

Methods of
Analysis
Resistors & Passive Sign Convention

Methods of
Analysis
Example: Ohm’s Law

Methods of
Analysis
Short Circuit as Zero Resistance

Methods of
Analysis
Short Circuit as Voltage Source (0V)

Methods of
Analysis
Open Circuit

Methods of
Analysis
Open Circuit as Current Source (0 A)

Methods of
Analysis
Conductance

Methods of
Analysis
Circuit Building Blocks

Methods of
Analysis
Branches

Methods of
Analysis
Nodes

Methods of
Analysis
Loops

Methods of
Analysis
Overview of Kirchhoff’s Laws

Methods of
Analysis
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Methods of
Analysis
Kirchhoff’s Current Law for
Boundaries

Methods of
Analysis
KCL - Example

Methods of
Analysis
Ideal Current Sources: Series

Methods of
Analysis
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law - KVL

Methods of
Analysis
KVL - Example

Methods of
Analysis
Example – Applying the Basic Laws

Methods of
Analysis
Example – Applying the Basic Laws

Methods of
Analysis
Example – Applying the Basic Laws

Methods of
Analysis
Resistors in Series

Methods of
Analysis
Resistors in Parallel

Methods of
Analysis
Resistors in Parallel

Methods of
Analysis
Voltage Divider

Methods of
Analysis
Current Divider

Methods of
Analysis
Resistor Network

Methods of
Analysis
Resistor Network - Comments

Methods of
Analysis
Delta  Wye Transformations

Methods of
Analysis
Delta  Wye Transformations

Methods of
Analysis
Example –
Delta  Wye Transformations

Methods of
Analysis
Methods of
Analysis
 Methods of Analysis
• Introduction
• Nodal analysis
• Nodal analysis with voltage source
• Mesh analysis
• Mesh analysis with current source
• Nodal and mesh analyses by
inspection
• Nodal versus mesh analysis

Methods of
Analysis
 3.2 Nodal Analysis

Steps to Determine Node Voltages:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign
voltage v1, v2, …vn-1 to the remaining n-1
nodes. The voltages are referenced with
respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 nonreference
nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to
obtain the unknown node voltages.
Methods of
Analysis
Figure 3.1

Common symbols for indicating a reference

node,
(a) common ground, (b) ground, (c) chassis.
Methods of
Analysis
Figure 3.2

Typical circuit for nodal

analysis Methods of
Analysis
 I 1  I 2  i1  i2
I 2  i2  i3

vhigher  vlower
i
R
v1  0
i1 or i1  1 1
 R1 Gv
v1  v2
i2 or i2  G2 (v1  v2
 R2 )
v2  0
i3 or i3 
 R3 G3v2
Methods of
Analysis
 I 1  2  v1  v1 v2
I R 1

R2
I2  v1 v2 
R2
v2
I I G
1 2
Rv3  G (v  v )
1 1 2 1 2

I 2  G2 (v1  v2 )  G3v2

G 1  G2  G2 v1  I1  I 2 
 G2  G   v   I 2 
  G 2 3   2

 
 Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.1

 Calculus the node voltage in the

circuit shown in Fig. 3.3(a)

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.1

 At node 1

i1  i2  i3

v1  v2 v1  0
5 
4

2
Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.1

 At node 2
i2  i4  i1 
i5
v 2  v1  v2  0
5
4 6

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.1

 In matrix form:

1 1 1  5
 2 4   
4 
1

1 1 1    
     v 2  5 
 4 6 4v
 Methods of
Analysis
Practice Problem 3.1

Fig
3.4
Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.2

 Determine the voltage at the nodes

in Fig. 3.5(a)

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.2

 At node 1,

3  i1  ix

v1  v3 v1  v2
3 
4

2
Methods of
Analysis
 Example 3.2

 At
2
v1 nvi2xodvi 2 i3 v3 v2  0
   4
e2
2 8

Methods of
Analysis
 Example 3.2

 At node 3
i1  i2  2ix

v1  v3 v2  v3 2(v1  v2 )
  
4 8
2

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.2

 In matrix form:

 3 1
2 
 4  1

 1 7 1 14   vv   30
   2 
 2 8 8 
3 3 v 
  0 3
 94
8 Methods of
Analysis
 3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage
Sources

 Case 1: The voltage source is

connected between a nonreference
node and the reference node: The
nonreference node voltage is equal to
the magnitude of voltage source and
the number of unknown nonreference
nodes is reduced by one.
 Case 2: The voltage source is
connected between two
nonreferenced nodes: a generalized
Methods of
Analysis
3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage
Sources

i1  i4  i2  i3 

v1  v2 v1  v3 v2  0 v3  0
  
2 4 8
6
 v2  v3  5

Fig. 3.7 A circuit with a

supernode. Methods of
Analysis
A supernode is formed by enclosing a
(dependent or independent) voltage
source connected between two
nonreference nodes and any elements
connected in parallel with it.
 The required two equations for
regulating the two nonreference node
voltages are obtained by the KCL of the
supernode and the relationship of node
voltages
voltage due to the Methods of
Analysis
 Example 3.3
 For
the circuit shown in Fig. 3.9, find the
node
2  7  i1 i2  0
v1 v2
27  0
2
4
v1  v2  2

i i
1 2

Methods of
Analysis
 Example 3.4
Find the node voltages in the circuit of Fig.
3.12.

Methods of
Analysis
 Example 3.4

 At suopernode ,
1-2
v3  v2 v1  v4  v1
6 10  3

2
v1  v2  20

Methods of
Analysis
 Example 3.4

 At supernode 3-
4,

v1  v4 v3  v2 v4 v3
  
3 6 1
4
v3  v4  3(v1  v4 )

Methods of
Analysis
3.4 Mesh Analysis

 Mesh analysis: another procedure for

analyzing circuits, applicable to planar
circuit.
 A Mesh is a loop which does not
contain any other loops within it

Methods of
Analysis
Fig. 3.15

(a)A Planar circuit with crossing branches,

(b)The same circuit redrawn with no crossing
branches. Methods of
Analysis
 Fig. 3.16

A nonplanar
circuit.

Methods of
Analysis
 Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, .., in to the n
meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use
Ohm’s law to express the voltages in
terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous
equations to get the mesh currents.

Methods of
Analysis
Fig. 3.17

A circuit with two

meshes. Methods of
Analysis
  V1  R1i1  R3 (i1  i2 ) 
0 1 to 3 ea1 ch 3 m
 Apply KVL
2 es1 h .
(R  R )i  R i
ForVmesh 1,

 R i  R3 (i2  i1 ) 
For mes h 22 2,
0
 V2  R3i1  (R2  R3 )i2 
V2 Methods of
Analysis
 Solve for the mesh
currents.

R1  R3  R3 i1   V1 
 R R 
 3 2
 R3 i2  V2 
 Use i for a mesh current and I for a
 current. It’s evident from Fig.
branch
3.17 that
I 1  i1 , I 2  i2 , I 3  i1  i2
Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.5

 Find
the branch current I1, I2, and I3
using mesh analysis.

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.5
15
 For mesh
 5i 1 10(i1  i2 ) 10 

1, 0 3i1  2i2  1

 For
6i2  4i2  10(i2  i1 ) 10 
mesh
2, 0
I1  i1 , i1I 2i 1 I3  i1  i2
2  i22 ,

 We can find i1 and i2 by substitution

method or Cramer’s rule. Then,
Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.6

 Use mesh analysis to find the current I0

in the circuit of Fig. 3.20.

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.6

 Apply
KVL to each mesh. For
mesh 1,
 24  10(i1  i2 ) 12(i1  i3 ) 
0 11i1  5i2  6i3  12

 For mesh 2,
24i2  4(i2  i3 )  10(i2 
i1 )  0
 5i1 19i2  2i3 0 Methods of
Analysis
 Example 3.6
 For mesh 4 I  12 ( i 3  i 1 )  4 ( i 3  i 2 )  0
0

3, At node A, I 0 I1  i2 ,
4 ( i 1  i 2 )  12 ( i 3  i 1 )  4 (i3  i2 ) 0
 i1  i 2  2i3  0

 Inmatrix from Eqs. (3.6.1) to (3.6.3)

become 11  5  6 i 12
  1  
 5 19  2  i 2    0 
  1 1 2  i3  0
we can calculus i1 , i2 and i3 by Cramer’s

rule, and find I0. 
Methods of
Analysis
 3.5 Mesh Analysis with Current
Sources

Fig. 3.22 A circuit with a current

source.

Methods of
Analysis
 Case
i1   2 A
1– Current source exist only in one mesh

– One mesh variable is reduced

 Case 2
– Current source exists between two
meshes, a super-mesh is obtained.

Methods of
Analysis
Fig. 3.23

a supermesh results when two meshes

have a (dependent , independent)
current source in common.

Methods of
Analysis
Properties of a Supermesh

1. The current is not completely

ignored
– provides the constraint equation
necessary to solve for the mesh
current.
2. A supermesh has no current of its
own.
3. Several current sources in adjacency
form a bigger supermesh.
Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.7

 Forthe circuit in Fig. 3.24, find i1 to i4

using mesh analysis.

Methods of
Analysis
 If a supermesh consists of two 6i1  14 i2 
equationstwo
meshes, are needed; one is obtained
KVL and Ohm’s law to the supermesh and20
using i2   6
the i1
other is obtained by relation regulated due
to
the current source.

Methods of
Analysis
 Similarly,a supermesh formed from
three meshes needs three equations:
one is from the supermesh and the
other two equations are obtained
from the two current sources.

Methods of
Analysis
2 i1   8(i3 i4 ) 6i2 
4i 0
i  5
3 1

8 ( i 3  i 4 ) i4 2 i 4  10 
0
i2


i2

Methods of
Analysis
 3.6 Nodal and Mesh Analysis by
Inspection

The analysis equations

can be obtained by direct
inspection
(a) For circuits with only resistors and
independent current sources
(b)For planar circuits with only
resistors and independent
voltage sources

Methods of
Analysis
 In the Fig. 3.26 (a), the circuit has two
nonreference nodes and the node
I1  I 2  G1v1  G2 (v1 
equations (3.7)
v2 ) (3.8)
I 2  G2 (v1  v2 )  G3v2
 MATRIX
G1  G2  G2 v1  I1  I 2 
  I2 
  G 2 G 2
 G3 v2
 
Methods of
Analysis
 Ingeneral, the node voltage
equations in terms of the
conductance is
or   v1  
simply G 11 G 12 G 1N  v   i1 
G  i
Gv =
 G 21 22 2 N
 2    2 
i ⁝ ⁝  ⁝
 ⁝ G   ⁝ 
 G N 1 G N 2  G NN   v N   i N 
⁝
where G : the conductance
matrix,
v : the output vector, i : the input
vector Methods of
Analysis
 Thecircuit has two nonreference
nodes and the node equations were
derived as

R1  R3  R3 i1   v1 
  R 3 R2  R   i    v 
3   2  2 


Methods of
Analysis
 In general, if the circuit has N
meshes, the mesh-current equations
term
as theisresistances
 R 11 R 12
 i
R1N  
1  v  1

i   
   v 2
or 
R 21 R 22
 2

⁝ R2N 
simply  ⁝  ⁝   ⁝
⁝  ⁝
 R N 1 R R NN   i N   N 
Rv = N 2
v 
i
where R : the resistance matrix,
i : the output vector, v : the input
vector
Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.8

 Write
the node voltage matrix
equations in Fig.3.27.

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.8

 The circuit has 4 nonreference

nodes,
G
325
11
5 so
1  1  0 .3, G
10
1  1  1
5 8 22
1
 1.

1 1 1 1 1
G    0 .5, G 1
8  2  1  1.
33 44
 8  8 4
625
 The off-diagonal terms
are
G 12   1 5   0.2, G  G 
13 14

0
1 1
G 21   0.2, G23   8   0.125 , G24   1  
 0, G 32   0.125 , G 34   1
G 31
0 .125
Methods of
G 41  0, G   1, G   0.125 Analysis
Example 3.8
i1  3 , i 2   1  2   3 , i 3  0 , i 4  2  4 
6
 The input current vector i in amperes

 The node-voltage equations are

 0 .3  0.2 0 0
3
 v1 
 
  0.2 1 .325  1  v 2     3 
 0  0.125  
  0
 0   v3

 1 .625  v 4  6 
 
0.125
 0.125
0 .5 Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.9

 Writethe mesh current equations in

Fig.3.27.

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.9

 The input voltage vector v in

volts
v1  4 , v  10  4  6 ,
2

v3   12  6  6, v 4  0, v5  
6
 The mesh-current equations
are 9  2  2 0
  i1   4 
0  2   6 
 2 10  4  1  1 i 
  
 2  4 9 0 0
  i3     6 
0
  3 i4 
     6  
0 1 0 8 4  
0 1 0  3 i5
Methods of
Analysis
3.7 Nodal Versus Mesh Analysis

 Both nodal and mesh analyses

provide a systematic way of
analyzing a complex network.
 The choice of the better method
dictated by two factors.
– First factor : nature of the particular
network. The key is to select the method
that results in the smaller number of
equations.
– Second factor : information required.
Methods of
Analysis
BJT Circuit Models

(a) dc equivalent
model.
(b)An npn transistor, Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.13

 For the BJT circuit in Fig.3.43, =150

and
VBE = 0.7 V. Find v0.

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.13

 Usemesh analysis or nodal

analysis

Methods of
Analysis
Example 3.13

Methods of
Analysis
3.10 Summary

1. Nodal analysis: the application of

KCL at the nonreference nodes
– A circuit has fewer node equations
2. A supernode: two nonreference
nodes
3. Mesh analysis: the application of
KVL
– A circuit has fewer mesh equations
4. A supermesh: two meshes
Methods of
Analysis
 UNIT II – SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE ANALYSIS 9
–-Phasor
– Sinusoidal steady state response concepts of impedance and admittance
– Analysis of simple circuits
– Power and power factors
–– Solution of three phase balanced circuits and three phase unbalanced circuits
–-Power measurement in three phase circuits.

95 Methods of
Analysis
Sinusoidal Steady
State
Response
Sinusoidal Steady State
Response

1. Identify the frequency, angular frequency, peak value, RMS

value,
phase
andof a sinusoidal
2. Solve steady-state ac circuits using phasors and complex
signal.
impedances .
3. Compute power for steady-state ac circuits.
4. Find Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits.

5. Determine load impedances for maximum power

transfer.
The sinusoidal function v(t) =
VM sin ω t is plotted (a)
versus ω t and (b) versus t.
The sine wave VM sin (ω t + θ) leads VM sin
ω t by θ radian
 1 2
Frequency f T Angular frequencyω π
T
 
ω  2 πf

o
sin z  cos(z  90 )
o
sin ωt  cos(ωt  90
)
 Representation of the two vectors v1
and v2.

In this diagram, v1 leads v2 by 100o + 30o = 130o, although it

could also be argued that v2 leads v1 by 230o.
Generally we express the phase difference by an angle less
than or equal to 180o in magnitude.
 Euler’s identity

θ ω t
ω  2π f
Acosω t  Acos 2π f t
In Euler expression,

A cos ωt = Real (A e jω
t ) A sinω t = Im( A e jω t )

Any sinusoidal function

can be expressed as in
Euler form.

4-6
 Applying Euler’s Identity

The complex forcing function Vm e j (ω t + θ) produces the complex

response Im e j (ωt + ϕ).
The sinusoidal forcing function Vm cos (ω t + θ) produces
the steady-state response Im cos (ω t + φ).

The imaginary sinusoidal input j Vm sin (ω t + θ) produces

the imaginary sinusoidal output response j Im sin (ω t + φ).
Re(Vm e j (ω t + θ) ) → Re(Im e j (ωt + ϕ))

Im(Vm e j (ω t + θ) ) → Im(Im e j (ωt + ϕ))

Phasor Definition

Time function : v1 t   V1 cosωt

 θ1 
Phasor: V1 
V1θ1

V1  Re(e
A phasor diagram showing the
sum of
V1 = 6 + j8 V and V2 = 3 – j4 V,
V1 + V2 = 9 + j4 V = Vs
Vs = Ae j θ
A = [9 2 + 4 2]1/2
θ = tan -1 (4/9)
Vs = 9.8524.0o V.
 Phasors Addition

Step 1: Determine the phase for each term.

Step 2: Add the phase's using complex
arithmetic. Step 3: Convert the Rectangular
form to polar form.

Step 4: Write the result as a time function.

Conversion of rectangular to
polar form

v1t   20 cos(ωt 
∘
45v )(t)  10 cos(ωt 
2
∘
30 )

∘
V1  20  45
 Vs  V1 
 20 45∘
V2 14.14 j14.148.660

1023.06
 30∘
Vs  Ae jθ
j5

j19.14
A 2
29.97
23.06  (19.14) 39.7
29.96, ∘
θ2 19.14
23.06  39.7 ∘

tan 1

vs t   29.97 cosωt 
39.7

Phase relation ship
COMPLEX IMPEDANCE

V L  j ωL  I L
Z 
ωL90
L j ω L 
∘

VL  Z L I L
(a
(b)
) In the phasor domain,
(a)a resistor R is represented by
an impedance of the same value;
(b)a capacitor C is represented by
an impedance 1/jωC;
(c)an inductor L is represented by
an impedance jωL.
(c
)
 V  jωt
Ve dV d Ve jωt jωt
IC   jω
C dt dt CVe
1
V
I  jω C V  I 
jω Zc
 C
Zc is defined as the impedance of a capacitor

The impedance of a capacitor is 1/jC.

As I  jω C V, if v  V cosω t, then i  ωCV cos(ω t 

90∘ )
 As I  jω C if v  V cosωt, then i  ω CV cos(ω t  90∘
)
IV,  ω
M
M M

CVM
 I  Ie
jωt
dI jωt
V  L d Ie  jωLIe jωt
L dt dt
V
V  jω LI  I  jω L  L

Z
ZL is the impedance of an inductor. The impedance of a
inductor is jL

As V  jω C I, if i  I cosω t, then v  ω LI cos(ω t 

90∘ )
or i  I cos(ω t  90∘ ), and v  ω LI cosωt.
 ∘
AsV ωCI, if i  MI cosωt, thenv ωLIM ωt
j I
ori ωt 90∘),andvcos(ωLI t,V 90 )
M M M M
cos( cosω ωLI
Complex Impedance in Phasor
Notation

VC  ZC I C
1
ZC 1 1
j ωC   j ωC    90∘


VL  ωZ LCI L
Z L  j ωL 
ωL90 ∘

VR  RIR
θ
ϕ
 Kirchhoff’s Laws in Phasor Form

We can apply KVL directly to phasors.

The sum of the phasor voltages equals
zero for any closed path.

The sum of the phasor currents

entering a node must equal the sum
of the phasor currents leaving.
Ztotal  100 j(150
50)  100 j100 
141.445∘
V
I  ∘  0.70730∘ 
10030
 Ztotal 45141.445
∘
∘

 0.707
15 ∘
V  100I   15 ∘, v (t)  70.7cos(500t
R ∘ R
70.7 15 ) ∘ 0.707 15∘  106.0590∘
VL  j150 I  15090
15
∘
106.0575∘ , v (t)  106.05cos(500t 
75∘ )
L
VC   j50I  50  90∘ 0.707 15∘  35.35  90∘
15
∘
35.35 105∘ , v (t)  35.35cos(500t
105∘ )
L
 1 1
Z RC 
 1/ R  1/ 1/100  1/( j100)
1Zc 1
As j j0.01
 j100  j100 j   j2  j0.01
 
1 10∘
Z RC    70.71 
450.01
∘  j0.01
 0.0141445
∘
50 
j50
 ZRC
Vc  (voltage division)
Z L  ZRC
Vs ∘ 70.71  45∘
70.71  45
∘
∘
 10   10 
90 j100  50  j50 90 50 
∘ 70.71  45
∘ j50
∘
 10  45  10  
135
vVc (t) 70.7145 ∘
 10 cos (1000t  135 )   10 cos 1000t
∘
 Vs
I
 Z L  ZRC
10  90∘ 10  90∘

j100  50  j50  50 
j50
10   0.414  ∘
 70.7145∘
90∘ 135
i(t)  0.414 cos (1000t 
135∘ )
IR 
R
VC
10   0.1  ∘
 100
i135
R (t)
135
) 135 
∘ 0.1 cos (1000t
∘

V 10  135∘ 10 

IC  C ∘   0.1 
135
Zc  j100 100  90 45∘
∘
iAR (t)  0.1 cos (1000t  45 )
 ∘
Solve by nodal
analysis

V1 V1 V2  2  90∘   eq(1)


j2
10  j5
V2 V2 V1 eq(2)
j10   j5  1.50∘

1.5
 V2
V1 V1 V2  2  90∘   eq(1 V2 V1 eq(2)
 j10  j5  1.50 
 ∘

j2 )
10  j5
Fromeq (1) 1.5
1 1 j j 1
0.1V1  j0.2V1  j0.2V2   j2 As     j, 
 j
j j 1 j
(0.1 j0.2)V1  j0.2V2   j
j2 Fromeq (2)
 j0.2V1  j0.1V2  1.5
SolvingV1 by eq(1)  2 
eq(2) (0.1 j0.2)V1  3 j2
3 j2 3.6 
V1   16.1  33.69∘ 
33.69
0.1
∘
j0.2 0.2236 
 63.43∘
 63.43 ∘

16.129.74 ∘
∘
v1  16.1cos(100t  29.74 )
V
Vs= - j10,
ZL=jωL=j(0.5×500)=j250

Use mesh analysis,

  Vs  V R  V Z 
0 (  j10 )  I  250  I  ( j 250 ) 
0  j10 10   90
I ∘   0.028   90  45 ∘
 250  j 250 ∘ 353 .33 45
∘
I  0.028   135 ∘
i  0.028 cos( 500 t  135 ∘ )A
V L  I  Z L  (0.028   135 )  250  90
∘
∘

 7  45 ∘
v L (t )  7 cos( 500 t  45 ) V
∘
V R  I  R  (0.028   135 )  250  7 
135 ∘
∘
v R (t )  7 cos( 500 t  135 )
∘
AC Power Calculations

P  Vrms I rms cosθ

 PF  cosθ 
θ  θv  θi

Q  Vrms I rms sinθ


 apparent power  Vrms I
rms

P 2 Q2 2

2
V2
P rms R Rrms
P R
I
2
V2
Q rms X Xrms
Q X
I
THÉVENIN EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS
The Thévenin voltage is equal to the open-
circuit phasor voltage of the original
circuit.

Vt  Voc

We can find the Thévenin impedance

by zeroing the independent sources
and determining the impedance
looking into the circuit terminals.
The Thévenin impedance equals the open-
circuit voltage divided by the short-circuit
current.

Zt V oc

I  I
 V sc sc
t
In 
Isc
 Maximum Power Transfer

• If the load can take on any complex

value, maximum power transfer is
attained for a load impedance equal to
the complex conjugate of the Thévenin
impedance.
• If the load is required to be a pure
resistance, maximum power
transfer is attained for a load
resistance equal to the magnitude
 UNIT III–NETWORK THEOREMS (BOTH AC AND DC CIRCUITS) 9
– Superposition theorem
– The venin’s theorem
- Norton’s theorem
-Reciprocity theorem
- Maximum power transfer theorem.

16
1
9.1 – Introduction

 This chapter introduces important

fundamental theorems of network
analysis. They are the
Superposition theorem
Thévenin’s theorem
Norton’s theorem
Maximum power transfer theorem
Substitution Theorem
Millman’s theorem
Reciprocity theorem
9.2 – Superposition Theorem

Used to find the solution to networks with

two or more sources that are not in series
or parallel.
The current through, or voltage across, an
element in a network is equal to the
algebraic sum of the currents or voltages
produced independently by each source.
Since the effect of each source will be
determined independently, the number of
networks to be analyzed will equal the
number of sources.
 Superposition Theorem

The total power delivered to a resistive

element must be determined using the total
current through or the total voltage across
the element and cannot be determined by a
simple sum of the power levels established
by each source.
9.3 – Thévenin’s Theorem

Any two-terminal dc network can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source and a
series resistor.
 Thévenin’s Theorem

 Thévenin’s theorem can be used to:

Analyze networks with sources that are not in
series or parallel.
Reduce the number of components
required to establish the same
characteristics at the output terminals.
Investigate the effect of changing a particular
component on the behavior of a network
without having to analyze the entire network
after each change.
Thévenin’s Theorem

 Procedure to determine the proper values of

RTh and ETh
 Preliminary
1. Remove that portion of the network across which
the Thévenin equation circuit is to be found. In the
figure below, this requires that the load resistor RL
be temporarily removed from the network.
Thévenin’s Theorem

2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal

network. (The importance of this step will become
obvious as we progress through some complex
networks.)

RTh:
3. Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero
(voltage sources are replaced by short circuits, and
current sources by open circuits) and then finding the
resultant resistance between the two marked
terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage
and/or current sources is included in the original
network, it must remain when the sources are set to
zero.)
 Thévenin’s Theorem

ETh:
4. Calculate ETh by first returning all sources to their
original position and finding the open-circuit voltage
between the marked terminals. (This step is invariably
the one that will lead to the most confusion and
errors. In all cases, keep in mind that it is the open-
circuit potential between the two terminals marked in
step 2.)
 ’s Theorem

 Insert Figure 9.26(b)

5. Draw the Thévenin
equivalent circuit with the
portion of the circuit
previously removed
replaced between
the terminals of the
equivalent circuit. This
step is indicated by the
placement of the
resistor RL between
the terminals of the
Thévenin equivalent
circuit.
 Experimental
 Procedures

 popular experimental procedures for

determining the parameters of the
Thévenin equivalent network:
 Direct Measurement of ETh and RTh
 For any physical network, the value of ETh can be
determined experimentally by measuring the open-
circuit voltage across the load terminals.
 The value of RTh can then be determined by
completing the network with a variable resistance
RL .
 Thévenin’s Theorem
Measuring VOC and ISC

 The Thévenin voltage is again determined by

measuring the open-circuit voltage across the
terminals of interest; that is, ETh = VOC. To
determine RTh, a short- circuit condition is
established across the terminals of interest and
the current through the short circuit (Isc) is
measured with an ammeter.
Using Ohm’s law:

RTh = Voc / Isc

 Vth

17
 Rth

17
 Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states the following:

 Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network

can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current and a parallel
resistor.
The steps leading to the proper values of IN
and RN.
Preliminary steps:
1. Remove that portion of the network across
which the Norton equivalent circuit is found.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-
 Norton’s Theorem
Finding RN:

3. Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero

(voltage sources are replaced with short circuits,
and current sources with open circuits) and then
finding the resultant resistance between the two
marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of
the voltage and/or current sources is included in
the original network, it must remain when the
sources are set to zero.) Since RN = RTh the
procedure and value obtained using the
approach described for Thévenin’s theorem will
determine the proper value of RN.
 Norton’s Theorem
Finding IN :
4. their
original position and then finding the short-
circuit current between the marked terminals.
It is the
same current that would be measured by an
ammeter placed between the marked
terminals.
Conclusion:
5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the
portion of the circuit previously removed
replaced between the terminals of the
equivalent circuit.
17
 Maximum Power
Transfer Theorem

The maximum power transfer

theorem states the following:
A load will receive maximum power
from a network when its total
resistive value is exactly equal to
the Thévenin resistance of the
network applied to the load. That
is,
R =R
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

For loads connected directly to a dc voltage supply, maximum

power will be delivered to the load when the load resistance is
equal to the internal resistance of the source; that is, when:RL =
Rint
 Reciprocity Theorem


The reciprocity theorem is applicable only

to single-source networks and states the
following:
 The current I in any branch of a network, due
to a single voltage source E anywhere in the
network, will equal the current through the
branch in which the source was originally
located if the source is placed in the branch in
which the current I was originally measured.
 The location of the voltage source and the resulting
current may be interchanged without a change in
UNIT IV - TRANSIENT RESPONSE FOR DC CIRCUITS
–– Transient response of RL, RC and RLC
–– Laplace transform for DC input with sinusoidal input.
Solution to First Order Differential Equation
Consider the general
Equation

dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  K s f (t)
Let the initial condition be x(t = 0) = x( 0 ), then we solve the
differential equation:

dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  K s f (t)

The complete solution consists of two

parts:
• the homogeneous solution (natural
solution)
• the particular solution (forced
The Natural Response

Consider the general

Equation
dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  K s f (t)
Setting the excitation f (t) equal to
zero,

τ dx N (t)  xN (t)  0 dxN (t) x N (t) dx N (t) dt

dt or dt  τ , xN (t)   τ
dx (t)
dt x N (t)  α
 x N (t)   τ ,
N
e t / τ

It is called the natural response.

 The Forced Response

Consider the general

Equation
dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  K s f (t)

Setting the excitation f (t) equal to F, a constant

for t 0
dxF (t)
τ dt  xF (t)  K S F
xF (t)  K S F for t  0

It is called the forced response.

 The Complete RespSoolvenfsor e,

Consider the general

Equation

dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  K s f (t) for t  0
The complete response is: x(t  0)  x(0)  α 
•the natural response x()
+ α  x(0)  x()
•the forced response The Complete solution:

x(t)  [x(0)  x()]et / τ  x()

x  xN (t)
t /
 xF (t)
τ
α e  KS
[x(0)  x()]et / τ called transient response
 α et / τ 
F
x() called steady state response
x()
TRANSIENT RESPONSE
 A general model of the transient

Circuit with switched DC excitation analysis

problem
For a circuit containing energy storage element
 (a) Circuit at t = 0

(b) Same circuit a long time after the switch is closed

The capacitor acts as open circuit for the steady state

condition (a long time after the switch is closed).
(a) Circuit for t = 0

(b) Same circuit a long time before the switch is

opened

The inductor acts as short circuit for the steady state

condition (a long time after the switch is closed).
Reason for transient response

 Thevoltage across a capacitor

changed
cannot be
instantaneously.

 
• The (0 ) across
VCcurrent VC (0an) inductor
cannot be changed instantaneously.

 
I L (0 )  I L (0 )
 Example

5-6
 Transients Analysis

1. Solve first-order RC or RL
circuits.

2. Understand the concepts of

transient response and steady-
state response.

3. Relate the transient response

of first- order
 Transients

The solution of the diff erential

equation represents are response of
the circuit.
It is called natural response.

The response must eventually die

out, and therefore referred to as
transient response.
(source free response)
Discharge of a Capacitance through a
Resistance

iC  iR 
i  0
ic iR 0, dv t  v t 
C C  C

0
dt R
Solving the above
equation with the initial
 Discharge of a Capacitance through a
Resistance

1
dvC
t  
vC 
s  RC
C dt  R v C t 
 t 0  t RC

dv Ke 
RC C  vC t  vC (0 )  Vi
tdt
vC t  0
Ke  Ke0 / RC
st

RCKsest  Kest   Kt

vC t i RC
vC t  Vi et RC

Exponential decay
waveform RC is called the
time constant. At time
constant, the voltage is
36.8%
of the initial voltage.

vC t   Vi (1 et RC
)
Exponential rising
waveform RC is called the
time constant.
At time constant, the voltage is
RC CIRCUIT

for t = 0-, i(t) = 0

u(t) is voltage-step function
Vu(t)
RC CIRCUIT

iR  iC

vu(t)  vC dvC
iR  , iC  C
Vu(t dvC R
) RC dt  vC  V , vu(t)  V for t 
0 dt
Solving the diff erential
equation
Complete Response

Complete response
= natural response + forced response
 Natural response (source free
response) is due to the initial
condition
 Forced response is the due to
the external excitation.
 Fi

a) Complete, transient and steady state

response
b) Complete, natural, and forced responses
of the circuit

5-8
Circuit Analysis for RC Circuit

Apply KCL

iR  iC
vs  vR dv
iR  , iC  C C
R
dvC 1 1
dt  dt
RC vR RC vs

v s is the source
applied.
Solution to First Order Differential Equation

Consider the general

Equation
dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  K s f (t)
Let the initial condition be x(t = 0) = x( 0 ), then we solve the
differential equation:

dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  K s f (t)
The complete solution consist of two
parts:
• the homogeneous solution (natural
solution)
• the particular solution (forced
 The Natural Response

Consider the general

Equation

dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  K s f (t)
Setting the excitation f (t) equal to
zero,
dxN (t) dxN (t) x (t)
τ dt  xN (t)  0 or  N
dt τ
xN (t)  α et / τ

It is called the natural response.

 The Forced Response

Consider the general

Equation
dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  K s f (t)
Setting the excitation f (t) equal to F, a constant
for t 0
dxF (t)
τ dt  xF (t)  K S F
xF (t)  K S F for t  0
It is called the forced response.
 The Complete Response

Consider the general Solve for ,

Equation
for t  0
dx(t)
τ dt  x(t)  Ks f (t) x(t  0)  x(0)  α  x()
The complete response α  x(0)  x()
is:
• the natural response + The Complete solution:
• the forced response

x(t)  [x(0)  x()]et / τ  x()

x  xN (t)  xF (t)
[x(0)  x()]et / τ
 α et / τ  K S called transient response
x() called steady state response
F
Example

Initial condition Vc(0) = 0V

iR  iC
vs  vC dvC
iR  , iC  C
R
dv
RC dtC dt
 vC  vs
105  6 dvC
 vC 
0.0110 dt
100
dvC  v 
103 dt C
100
Example

Initial condition Vc(0)

= 0V
dvC  v 
103 dt C
100
dx(t) 
t
τ s
dt  x(t)  K f (t) vc  100  Ae 103

and
As vc (0)  0, 0  100
x  xN (t)  xF (t)
 A A  100
 α et / τ  K S 
t
F vc  100 100e 103
Energy stored in capacitor

dv
p  vi  Cv dt

t dv
t o pdt t
o Cv
dt dt to 


t
1C  t vdv
 C v (t ) 2
 v
2
(t ) 
If the zero-energy
o
2 reference is selected at to, implying
that the capacitor voltage is also zero at that instant,
then

1
wc (t) 2
2
RC CIRCUIT

Power dissipation in the

resistor is: 2
p = V /R = (V /R) e
R o
2 -2
Total energy turned into heat in the
t /RC
resistor
V 2   e2t / RCdt
o 0
WR  0  pR dt R
 1
 Vo 2 )e 2t / RC |0
2RC
R(
1
 2 CVo
RL CIRCUITS

Initial
condition
i(t = 0) = Io

vR  vL  0  Ri  L
dt
di
L di
R dt  i 
0 the differential equation
Solving
 RL CIRCUITS

i(t
) di
R
dt  L i 0
- + di t
VR R L VL
i  
R
L dt , 
i(t)
Io
di 
i 
o
R
L dt
+ -
i R
ln i |I o  t |ot
L

Initial
R
condition ln i  ln I o   L t
i(t = 0) = Io
i ( t )  I o e  Rt / L
 RL CIRCUIT

Power dissipation in the resistor is:

i(t 2
) -2Rt/L
pR = i2R = Io eR
- +
VR R L VL
Total energy turned into heat in 2the

2 Rt / L
resistor  o e dt
+ - W R  0 p dt  I
R
L
0

R  I o2 R (  2 Rt /L
|0
2 R )e
2
1
 2 LI o

It is expected as the energy stored in the 1 2

LI o
inductor is 2
 RL CIRCUIT Vu(t
)

i(t
)

+ R +
 L
_
Vu(t
)
L VL
i(0 )  0, thus k   ln
R
-

V
di L
Ri  L dt   R [ln(V  Ri )  ln V ]  t
V V  Ri
Ldi  e  Rt / L or
V
V  Ri  dt V V
Integrating both sides, i  e  Rt / L , for t  0
R R

 RL ln(V  Ri)  t  k where L/R is the time

DC STEADY STATE

The steps in determining the forced response for RL or RC

circuits with dc sources are:
1. Replace capacitances with open circuits.
2. Replace inductances with short circuits.
3. Solve the remaining circuit .
UNIT V RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS 9
– Series and parallel resonance
– their frequency response
– Quality factor and Bandwidth
– Self and mutual inductance
– Coefficient of coupling
– Tuned circuits
– Single tuned circuits.
 Any passive electric circuit will resonate if it has an inductor
and capacitor.

Resonance is characterized by the input voltage and current

being in phase. The driving point impedance (or admittance)
is completely real when this condition exists.

In this presentation we will consider (a) series resonance, and

(b) parallel resonance.
21
 Consider the series RLC circuit shown below.

R L
+
V _ C
V = VM I
∠0

The input impedance is given by:

1
Z  R  j( wL  )
wC
The magnitude of the circuit current is;
Vm
I |I |
21 
R2 ( wL 
1
2
wC )
 Resonance occurs when,

1
wL
 wC
At resonance we designate w as wo and write;

1
wo
 LC

This is an important equation to remember. It applies to both series

And parallel resonant circuits.

22
 Series Resonance

The magnitude of the current response for the series resonance circuit
is as shown below.

Vm
R
|
I| Vm
2R

Half power
point w1 wo w2 w

Bandwidt
h:

22 BW = wBW = w2 –
w1
 Series Resonance

The peak power delivered to the circuit is;

.

2
P V m
R
Vm
I
The so-called half-power is given when
2R

We find the frequencies, w1 and w2, at which this half-power

occurs by using;

22 2R  R2  (wL  1 )2
wC
 After some insightful algebra one will find two frequencies at which
the previous equation is satisfied, they are:

R 2 1
 R  
w1     2L  LC
2L
a
n
d
R 2 1
 R  
w2     LC
2L 2L

The two half-power frequencies are related to the resonant frequency by

wo  w 1w 2
22
 The bandwidth of the series resonant circuit is given
by;
BW  wb  w2  w1 
R L
We define the Q (quality factor) of the circuit as;

1
wo L  L
Q  C 
o
 1

Using Q, we can write the bandwidth as;
R w RC R
BW 
w Q
o

These are all important

22 relationships.
 An Observation:

If Q > 10, one can safely use the approximation;

BW BW
w1  wo  2 and w2  wo  2

These are useful approximations.

22
 By using Q = woL/R in the equations for w1and w2 we have;


 1  1 
2

w1  wo     1
 2Q  2Q  
and

2 
 1  1 
w2  wo    1 
  2Q  2Q  

22
 An Example Illustrating Resonance:

Case 1: ks
s2  2s 
400
Case
2: ks
s2  5s 
400
Case 3:
ks
s2  10s 
400
22
 An Example Illustrating Resonance:

Case 1:

s2  2s  400  (s  1 
j19.97)(s  1  j19.97)
Case 2:

s 2  5s  400  (s  2.5  j19.84)(s  2.5 

j19.84)
Case 3:

s2  10s  400  (s  5  j19.36)(s  5 

22 j19.36)
 Comments:

Observe the denominator of the CE equation.

1
R
s 2  L s  LC

Compare to actual characteristic equation for Case 1:

s2  2s 
400 w 
wo 2  rad/sec

400 20
wo
BW  R  rad/sec Q
2 10
L BW
22
 Poles and Zeros In the s-plane:
jw axis
(3 (2
)
(1 ) x 20
x
)x
s-plane

σ
0 axis
-5 -2.5 -
0
Note the location of the poles 1
for the three cases. Also note
there is a zero at the origin.

x x x -20
23 (3 (2
) )
(1)
 The frequency response starts at the origin in the s-plane.
At the origin the transfer function is zero because there is
a
zero at the origin.
As you get closer and closer to the complex pole, which
has a j parts in the neighborhood of 20, the response
starts
to increase.
The response continues to increase until we reach w = 20.
From there on the response decreases.

We should be able to reason through why the response

has the above characteristics, using a graphical approach.
23
 1

0 .9
Q = 10, 4, 2
0 .8

0 .7

0 .6
Amplitud

0 .5
e

0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

0
0 1 2 30 4 5 6

23
0 0 w ( ra d /s e 0 0 0
c)
 Next Case: Normalize all responses to 1 at wo

0.
Q = 10, 2
9 4,
0.
8
0.
7
Amplitude

0.
6

0.
5

0.
4

0.
3

23 0 .0
2 0 1
0
2
0
30 4
0
5
0
6
0
w(rad/se
c)
0.
1
 Three dB Calculations:

Now we use the analytical expressions to calculate w1 and w2.

We will then compare these values to what we find from the
Matlab simulation.
Using the following equations with Q = 2,

 1  
w , w  w ∓ 
1 2 o
  1
o
12Q w  2Q  

we find, 
w1 = 15.62 rad/sec
23 w2 = 21.62 rad/sec
 Parallel Resonance

I
1 1 
R L C
I  V   jwC 
R jwL


L
R
 1 
V C
I V  I  R  jwL 
jwC
23 
 Duality


1 1 
V  I R  jwL 1 
I  V  jwC   
R jwL  jwC 

We notice the above equations are the same provided:

I V
If we
we make
makethe theinner-change,
inner-
change,
then one equation becomes
1 then one as
the same equation
the other.
R becomes the same as
R the other.case, we say the one
For such
circuit is the dual of the other.
L C For such case, we say
23 the one circuit is the
dual of the other.
 What
Whatthis
What thismeans
this meansis
means isisthat
that for
thatfor
forall
all
all the
the
the equations
equations
equations we have
we
wehave
havefor the parallel resonant circuit, we can use
derived
derived
derived
for for
forthe
the series the parallel resonant
parallelcircuit
resonant resonant circuit,
wewe
circuit,
provided we
make
can
canuse
the usefor
forthe
theseries
substitutions: seriesresonant
resonantcircuit
circuit
provided
providedwe wemake
makethe thesubstitutions:
substitutions:

1
R replaced be
R
L
replaced by C C
23
replaced by
 Parallel Resonance Series Resonance

1 1
wL w O  LC
w Q O Qw
LC
O o

 R RC
 1
BW  (w  w )  w w1w, 2
BW  w
2 L w
BW
RC
1 
BW
2
R 2

w , w ∓ R  R  1  w , w  ∓   1 
  1 
  2L   LC    LC
1
1 2 1 2
2L
  2RC  2RC 
 
2

  w , w  w ∓ 1  1 
2

∓1 1   1
w,w  w   1
1 2
1 2
 
23
o
 2Q  2Q   o

 2Q  2Q 
 


 Example Determine the resonant frequency for the circuit below.
1:

1
jwL(R  )
jwC (w LRC  jwL) 2

Z 
IN
1 (1  w LC)  2

 R  jwL
 jwC jwRC

23 At resonance, the phase angle of Z must be equal to zero.

 Analysis
(w LRC  jwL)
2

(1  w LC)  jwRC
2

For zero phase;

wL wRC

(w LCR) (1  w LC
2 2

This gives;

w LC  w R C
2 2 2 2

1
or
1
w
(LC  R C
o 2 2

24

)
 Parallel Resonance
Example 2:

A parallel RLC resonant circuit has a resonant frequency admittance of

2x10 -2 S(mohs). The Q of the circuit is 50, and the
A series the resonant
resonant
RLC resonant circuit has a resonant frequency frequency
frequency
admittance of is
is
10,000 rad/sec. Calculate
2x10-2 S(mohs). the circuit
The Q of the valuesisof
of50,
R,
R, and
L,
L, and
and
theC.
C. Find
Find the
resonant the half-power
half-power
frequency is
frequencies and the bandwidth.
10,000 rad/sec. Calculate the values of R, L, and C. Find the half-
power frequencies and the bandwidth.

First, R = 1/G = 1/(0.02) = 50 ohms.

Second, from Q
w L , we solve for L, knowing Q, R, and w to
o
 RO
find L = 0.25 H.
50
Third, we can use Q 100 μ
C w R 10,000x50
O F
24 
 Parallel Resonance
Example 2: (continued)

w 1x10 4

Fourth: We can use w  o  200 rad /

Q 50 sec
BW

and 

Fifth: Use the approximations;

w1 = wo - 0.5wBW = 10,000 – 100 =

9,900 rad/sec w2 = wo - 0.5wBW = 10,000 + 100 =

24 10,100 rad/sec
 Extension of Series Resonance
Peak Voltages and Resonance:

VR
L
+ _ + _ +
+
VC
VS R I C
_ _

We know the following:

1
✓ When w = wo = LC , VS and I are in phase, the driving point
impedance
is purely real and equal to R.

✓ A plot of |I| shows that it is maximum at w = wo. We know the standard

24 equations for series resonance applies: Q, wBW, etc.
 Reflection:

A little
reflection shows that VR is a peak value at wo. But we are not sure
about the other two voltages. We know that at resonance they are equal
and they have a magnitude of QxVS.

✓ Irwin shows that the frequency at which the voltage across the capacitor
is a maximum is given by;

1
wmax  wo 1
2Q2
✓ The above being true, we might ask, what is the frequency at which the
voltage across the inductor is a maximum?

We answer this question by simulation

24
 Series RLC Transfer Functions:

The following transfer functions apply to the series RLC circuit.

1
VC (s) LC

R 1
VS (s) 2
 s
s L
LC
VL (s)
s2
R
V
S (s)  s 1
s2 L
LC

R
s
24 VR (s)
 L
1
VS (s) 2 R
s  L s  LC
 Parameter Selection:

We select values of R, L. and C for this first case so that Q = 2 and

o ,
C = 5μF. The transfer functions become as
follows:

V 4x106
C
VS  s2 1000s  4x106

V s 2
L
VS  s 2 1000s  4x106

VR 1000s
VS s2 1000s  4x106

24
 Simulation Results

Q=2

R s e s p o n s e fo r R L C s e rie s c irc u it,

2 . Q = 2
5

V C V L

1 .
5
Amplitud
e

V R

0 .
5

0
0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0

24
0 0 0 w (ra d /s e 0 0 0 0
c )
 Analysis of the problem:

Given the previous circuit. Find Q, w0, wmax, |Vc| at wo, and |Vc| at wmax

+ VL
+ VR _ _
+ L=5 +
VC
VS mH C=5 μF
_ R=50 Ω I _

1 1
Solution: w   2000rad /
LC 50x10 x5x10 sec
O 2 6

wL 2x10 x5x10 3 2

24 Q O

 R 50 2
 Problem Solution:

1
w  w 1 
2Q 0.9354w
MAX O 2 o

| V |at w  Q | V|  2x1  2 volts

( peak)
R O S
Qx | V | 2
| V |at w S
  2.066volts 
 1 0.968
C MAX 1 peak)
4Q 2

24 Now check the computer printout.

 Exnsion of Series Resonance
Problem Solution (Simulation):

1.0e+003 *

1.8600000 0.002065141
1.8620000 0.002065292
1.8640000 0.002065411
1.8660000 0.002065501 Maximu
1.8680000 0.002065560 m
1.8700000 0.002065588
1.8720000 0.002065585
1.8740000 0.002065552
1.8760000 0.002065487
1.8780000 0.002065392
1.8800000 0.002065265
1.8820000 0.002065107
1.8840000 0.002064917

25
 Simulation Results:

Q=10
R s e s p o n s e fo r R L C s e r i e s c i r c u i t ,
1 Q =10
2

1
0

8
V C V L
Amplitude

V R

25 0 50
0
100
0
1500 2000
0
w(rad/sec)
250 300
0
350
0
400
0
 Observations From The Study:


The voltage across the capacitor and inductor for a series RLC
circuit
is not at peak values at resonance for small Q (Q <3).

Even for Q<3, the voltages across the capacitor and inductor
are
equal at resonance and their values will be QxVS.
 For Q>10, the voltages across the capacitors are for all practical
purposes at their peak values and will be QxVS.

 Regardless of the value of Q, the voltage across the resistor

reaches its peak value at w = wo.

 For high Q, the equations discussed for series RLC resonance

can be applied to any voltage in the RLC circuit. For Q<3, this
25 is not true.
 Extension of Resonant Circuits
Given the following circuit:

+
R
+
C V
I
_ L
_

✓ We want to find the frequency, wr, at which the transfer function

for V/I will resonate.

The transfer function will exhibit resonance when the phase angle
✓
between V and I are zero.

25
 The desired transfer functions is;

V (1/ sC)(R 

This equation can be simplified to;
sL) I R  sL 1/
sC
V


R  sL
I
LCs2  RCs 1
25
With s jw
 Resonant Condition:

For the previous transfer function to be at a resonant point,

the phase angle of the numerator must be equal to the phase angle
of the denominator.
or, θnum  θdem
wL  wRC  .
θ num  tan   ,
1 θden  tan1  (1 w 2LC) 
 
R
Therefore;

wL


25
wRC
 Resonant Condition Analysis:

L(1 w2 LC)  R2C or w2 L2C  L 

R2 C
This gives,
1 R2
wr 
LC

L2
Notice that if the ratio of R/L is small compared to 1/LC, we have

1
wr  wo
25  L
C
 Extension of Resonant Circuits
Resonant Condition Analysis:

What is the significance of w and w in the previous two equations?

Clearly wr is a lower frequency of the two. To answer this question, consider
the following example.

Given the following circuit with the indicated parameters. Write a

Matlab program that will determine the frequency response of the
transfer function of the voltage to the current as indicated.

+
R
+
C V
I
_ L
_

25
 R s e s p o n s e f o r R e s i s ta n c e i n s e r i e s w i t h L th e n P a r a
lle l w i th C
18

2646 16
1
/sec
rad 4 R =1 oh
m
12

10
Amplitud

8
e

6
R = 3 hms
4 o

25 0 1000 2000

3
000
0
4000

w (rad/sec)
500 600
0
700
0
800
0