Lexical Functional Grammar(LFG) Model

• Unlike GB, LFG represents sentences at 2 syntactic levels-

1. Constituent structure (c-structure)

2. Functional structure(f-structure)

• Based on Wood’s Augmented Transition Networks (ATN) 1970 , which used phrase
structure trees to represent the surface structure of sentences and underlying
predicate-argument structure , Kapaln (1975a , b) proposed a concrete form for the
register names and values (used in ATN implementation) , which became the
functional structures in LFG.
• On the other hand ,Bresnan (1976a , 1977) was more concerned with the problem of
explaining some linguistic issues such as active/passive and dative alternations ,in
transformational approach.
• She proposed that such issues can be dealt with by using lexical redundancy rules.

• The unification of diverse approaches(with a common concern) led to the development of the LFG theory
, which was presented as Lexical Functional Grammar: A Formal system for Grammatical representation
1982.

• The LFG is a formalism that is both computationally and linguistically motivated and provides precise
algorithms for linguistic issues it can handle.

• The term ‘lexical functional’ is composed of two terms :

1. The ‘functional’ part is derived from ‘grammatical functions’ , such as subject and object ,or roles
played by various arguments in sentence.

2. The ‘lexical’ part is derived from the fact that the lexical rules can be formulated to help define the
given structure of a sentence and some of long distance dependencies , which is difficult in
transformational grammar.
 C-structure and f-structure in LFG

• An LFG is aimed at providing exact computational algorithms , it provides well-defined

objects called constituent structure (c-structure) and functional structure(f-structure).

• The c-structure is derived from the usual phrase and sentence structure syntax , as in
CFG.

• However , as the grammatical – functional role cannot be derived directly from phrase
and sentence structure , functional specifications are annotated on the nodes of c-
structure , which when applied on sentences , results in f –structure.

• Hence , f-structure is the final product which encodes the information obtained from
phrase and sentence structure rules and functional specifications.
• Similarly , in Rule 2,the f-structure of VP is defined by the lexical item V , the 2
optional NPs , any number of PPs ,and the optional clause(S’).
• The f-structure of V can be obtained from the lexicon itself.
• All terminals in LFG can be thought of as annotated with
• The NPs can function as object and object 2 of the sentence , and their f-
structures are obtained using f-structure of the Obj and Obj2.
in rule 2 indicates that the f-structure of the PP and case of
PP(some literature refers it as P case) determines the f-structure of VP.
• ‘Comp’ refers to the compliment in a sentence , e. g. ,’He said that she is powerful’.
• It is interesting to note that the final f-structure is obtained through the unification of
various f-structures for subject , object , verb ,complement , etc.

• This unification is based on the functional specifications of the verb , which predicates
the overall sentence structure.

• LFG requires that all possible structures corresponding to passive constructs , dative
constructs , etc., must be specified.

• If the given sentence does not match that specifications , is is said to be ill-formed.

• LFG imposes 3 conditions on f-structure(Sells 1985).

• Consistency In a given f-structure , a particular attribute may have at the most one value.
Hence , while unifying two f-structures , if the attribute Num has value SG in one and PL in the
other , it will be rejected.

• Completeness A function is called governable if it appears within the Pred value of lexical form ,
e.g Subj ,Obj , and O bj2.

• Adjunct is not a governable function.

• When an f-structure and all its subsidiary f-structures(as the value of any attribute of f-structure can
again contain other f-structures) contain all the functions that their predicates govern , then and
only then is the f-structure complete.

• For Ex: Since the predicate ‘see <(↑ Subj) (↑ Obj)>’ contains an object as its governable function ,
a sentence like ‘He saw’ will be incomplete.
• Coherence : Coherence maps the completeness property in the reverse direction.

• It requires that all the governable functions of an f-structure , and all its subsidiary f-
structures , must be governed by their respective predicates.

• Hence , in the f-structure of a sentence , an object cannot be taken if its verb does not
allow that object.

• Thus , it will reject the sentence ‘I laughed a book.’

• The completeness and coherence conditions are counterparts of θ-criterion in GB

theory.
 Lexical Rules in LFG
• Different theories have different kind of lexical rules and constraints for handling various sentence –
constructs(active , passive ,dative ,causative etc.).

• In GB , to express a sentence in its passive form , the verb is changed to its participial form and the ability
of the verb to assign case and external (Agent) θ –role is taken away.

• In LFG , the verb is converted to the participial form , but the subcategorization is changed directly.

• Consider the following ex:

• Similar rules can be applied in active and dative constructs for the verbs that
accept two objects.

Here , Obl go stands for oblique goal phrase.

• Similar rules are also applicable to the process of causativization.

• This can be seen in Hindi , where the verb form is changed as follows:
Here , a new predicate is formed which causes the action and requires a new subject ,
while the old subject becomes the object of the new predicate and the old verb becomes
the X-complement(complement to infinital VPs).
Long Distance Dependencies and
Coordination

• In GB , when a category moved , it creates an empty category.

• In LFG , unbounded movement and coordination is handled by the functional

identity and by correlation with the corresponding f-structure.