Chapter- X

Data Analysis

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How to Analyze the Data?
1. Data Editing : All questionnaire which are filled
up and received from respondent may not be
accurate, precise, complete, uniform and
consistent. There is some lacking of accuracy, to
find these inaccuracy and incompleteness and to
eliminate the errors of filled questionnaire, data
should be edited.

2. Data Entry : It is the process of conversion of

information gathered from secondary or primary
sources to a medium for viewing and manipulation.

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3. Data Tabulation : After classification of
data on the basis of its characteristics like
age, gender, caste, literacy, income level,
religion, nationality, occupation, etc. data
should be summarized. Tabulation is the
process of summarization of data in rows
and columns having special characteristics
in a piece of paper. Such representation of
data in orderly and easily comprehensible
fashion is called tabulation.

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4. Data Analysis : It is a mathematical
operation to investigate the properties of
data. Such examination of data relies on a
range of statistical theory as well as
mathematical calculation. Analysis of data
is a process of inspecting, cleaning,
transforming, and modeling data with
the goal of highlighting useful
information, suggesting conclusions,
and supporting decision making. Data
analysis has multiple facets and approaches,
encompassing diverse techniques under a
variety of names, in different business,
science, and social science domains.
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 Why is it necessary to analyze the data?
1. To measure the variables,
2. To explore phenomena and explain the phenomenon
3. To summarize data / describe data,
4. To identify relationship between variables and compare variables,
5. To examine the association between variables,
6. To forecast outcomes,
7. To test hypothesis
An analysis must have four elements:
1. Data/information (what)
2. Scientific reasoning/argument (what? who? where? how? what
happens?)
3.Finding (what results?)
4.Lesson/conclusion (so what? so how? therefore,…) 5
Basic guide to data analysis
“Analyse” NOT “narrate”, Go back to research flow
chart, Break down into research objectives and
research questions, Identify phenomena to be
investigated, Visualise the “expected” answers,
Validate the answers with data, Don’t tell something
not supported by data.
Data mining : Data mining is a particular data
analysis technique that focuses on modeling and
knowledge discovery for predictive rather than
purely descriptive purposes. Business intelligence
covers data analysis that relies heavily on
aggregation, focusing on business information.
Qualitative data analysis : Qualitative research
uses qualitative data analysis (QDA) to analyze text,
interview transcripts, photographs, art, field notes of
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The process of data analysis
1. Assemble the data
2. Bringing data into order ( editing, coding,
tabulations, percentage)
3. Summarize the data ( statistical
summarization, measures of central
tendency, dispersion, graphical
presentation)
4. Select appropriate statistical methods
a. Examine difference
b. Analyze causal relationship
c. Investigate associations 7
 Statisti
cs

Descriptive Inferential
Statistics Statistics

Percentag Measure Measure of

Frequen Distributio Non-
e of Central Parametric
cy n parametric
Spread Tendency

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 Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the
analysis of data that helps describe, show or
summarize data in a meaningful way such
that, for example, patterns might emerge
from the data.
It does not make conclusions beyond the data
we have analyzed or reach conclusions
regarding any hypotheses we might have
made.
It provides a clear, concise, useful and
informative picture of a mass of numerical
figures.
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Descriptive Statistics…

1. Frequency: It shows the number of

times a particular phenomenon occurs.
2. Percentage : Percentage can calculated
on the basis of the data of row, column and
total.
3. Measures of central tendency : These
are tools of describing the central position
of a frequency distribution for a group of
data. We can describe this central position
using a number of statistics, including the
mode, median, and mean.
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Descriptive Statistics…
4. Measures of spread: These are ways of
summarizing a group of data by describing how
spread out the scores are. For example, the
mean score of 100 students may be 64.6 out of
100. However, not all students will have scored
64.6 marks. Rather, their scores will be spread
out. Some will be lower and others higher.
Measures of spread help us to summarize how
spread out these scores are. To describe this
spread, a number of statistics are available to
us, including the range, quartiles, absolute
deviation, variance and standard deviation.
5. Standard Deviation : Take each observation’s
difference from the mean, square it, add all such
squared differences, and divide the result by
number of observations. 11
Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics deal with drawing

conclusions and, in some cases, making
predictions about the properties of a
population based on information obtained
from a sample. While descriptive statistics
provide information about the central
tendency, dispersion, skewness, and kurtosis
of data, inferential statistics allow making
broader statements about the relationships
between data.

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 Importance / Advantages
Inferential statistics are frequently used to answer cause-and-
effect questions and make predictions.
They are also used to investigate differences between and among
groups.
Provide more detailed information than descriptive statistics.
Yield insight into relationships between variables.
Reveal causes and effects and make predictions.
Generate convincing support for a given theory.
Generally accepted due to widespread use in business and
academia.
Disadvantages
It is quite difficult to learn and use properly
Vulnerable to be misused and abused
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Types of Inferential Analysis
Tools of Non-parametric Test : Inferential
procedures that are not based on parameters, which
require fewer requirements be satisfied to perform the
tests. They do not require that the population follow a
specific type of distribution.
Distribution : It measures the distribution of
population.
Correlation : It describes the correlation between two
variables. Positive, negative and no linear correlation.
Association : It describes the relationship between
two variables. Coefficient of association vary from 0 to
1 and 0 to -1.
Variance: It is used to test for difference among more
than two groups or data.

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Types of Inferential Analysis (Contd…)

Tools of Parametric Test: Inferential procedures

that rely on testing claims regarding parameters
such as the population mean μ, the population
standard deviation, σ, or the population proportion,
p. Many times certain requirements had to be met
before we could use those procedures.
Estimation : Estimation statistics are used to make
estimates about population values based on sample
data.
Hypothesis Testing : An hypothesis is a statement
or explanation that is suggested by knowledge or
observation but has not, yet, been proved or
disproved.
Prediction : It is used to predict the future trends.
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Concept and importance of qualitative
analysis
Qualitative research is a well-established
academic tradition in anthropology, sociology,
history and geography. Qualitative methods
are generally associated with evaluation of
the social dimensions of development
programs, particularly programs which have
explicit social development aims. However
any simple dichotomy between quantitative =
economic and qualitative = social needs to be
questioned.

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 Importance of qualitative analysis
 A more accurate reflection of complex reality
 More balanced representation of different stakeholders
 A better understanding of processes
 Better relationship with respondents and more continuous
contact leading to more accurate information
 Better understanding of difference and ability to get
sensitive information
 Information may be more reliable if the investigation is
not influenced by expectations or fear of consequences.

Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ

primarily in their analytical objectives, the types of questions
they create, the types of data collection instruments they use,
the forms of data they produce and the degree of flexibility
built into study design.
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 Difference between quantitative and
qualitative analysis
Quantitative Analysis Qualitative Analysis
• It is objective. • It is subjective.
• Explanation through • Explanation through words.
numbers.
• Mostly Deductive • Mostly Inductive reasoning.
reasoning.
• Predefined variables and • Most often variables and
measurement. measurement are not predefined.
• Mostly cause effect • Mostly description, meaning.
relationship.
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Presenting data in Table, Graph & Diagrams
Histogram: A histogram consists of a series of
rectangles drawn next to each other without any
space between them, each representing the
frequency of a category of sub category. It can be
drawn both categorical and continuous variables.
Pie charts: Data are displaying in circle. Full circle
is assuming 100% population, it is sub divided as per
the size of the variables and display in differently.
Bar Chart : The bar chart or diagram is used for
displaying categorical data. It is used for variables
measured on nominal or ordinal scales. The discrete
categories are usually displayed along the x axis and
number or percentage of respondents on the y axis.

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Contd…
Stacked bar chart: It is drawn only for categorical
data. The section of the bar show the proportion of
the variables they represent in the relation to one
another.
Line diagram or trend curve: A line diagram is a
useful way of visually conveying the changes when
long term trends in a phenomena or situation need
to be studied or the changes in the sub category of a
variable is measured on an interval or a ratio scale.
It is useful to illustrating trends in birth or death
rates, and changes in population size.
The scattergram: The scattergram is effective tool
to display the how one variable changes in relation
to a change in the other variable. Data should be
measured on either interval or ratio scales. 20
Thank
You
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