Adama Science and Technology University

College of Applied Natural Science

Department of Applied Geology

Course Title: Fundamental Geophysics (Geol 3205)

Chapter Three : Seismicity

By: Abdela B. (MSc)

Nove 25 , 2023
Adama, Ethiopia
 Outline
 Introduction
 Wave through the Earth
 Earthquake seismology
 Refraction and Reflection Seismology
 Seismic Tomography
 Global seismicity distribution
 Application of seismic surveying
 After completing this chapter the students` will be able to :

 Defined Seismicity
 Differentiate body seismic waves from surface seismic waves
 Understand the main caused for earthquakes
 Understand earthquake seismology
 Understand principle of seismic method
 Differentiate refraction and reflection seismology
 To understand applications of seismic methods
 Introduction
 Seismicity: the relatively frequency and regional/ local distribution of the
earthquake in space, time and magnitude.
 It refers to the occurrence of seismic activities such as earthquake which sudden,
rapid shaking of the earth surface caused by the breaking and shifting of tectonic
plate.
 Seismic surveying was first carried out in the early 1920s.

 Seismic surveying can be carried out on land or at sea (offshore).

 Many of the principles of earthquake seismology are applicable to seismic

surveying
 Seismology is the study of the generation, propagation, and recording of elastic
waves in the Earth and of the sources that produce them.
 The elastic waves are due to deformational energy or elastic disturbances from
 Cont`…………..
Seismometer

Seismograph Sensor

Recorder

 A seismograph is a system that produces a permanent recording of ground motion

 Seismometer: is a harmonic oscillator that reacts in a predictable way to ground
motion.
 Sensor: converts the mechanical output from the seismometer into a form of
energy that can be recorded.
 Recorder: produces a permanent time history of the ground motion
 Cont`………………
generation Natural sources
Sources of the Seismic wa Impulsive
Artificial sources
Vibrators

 Natural sources: plate tectonic movements, ocean tides, and volcanic eruption

Controlled (Artificial ) Seismic Source:

 impulse Sources (dynamite sing hole/ pop shot , air gun array , weight
drop summation, hammering ): high power during short time

 Vibroseis Sources (peak force(24000-600000 lb), vibrator array,

number of stack, sweep frequency/ length ) : low power during long
 Cont`…………….
Stress Vs strain
 When external forces are applied to a body, balanced internal
forces are set up within it
 Stress is a measure of the intensity of these balanced internal
forces.
 The stress acting on an area of any surface within the body:
normal stress perpendicular to the surface and shearing stress
in the plane of the surface
 Hook law – elastic deformation:
σ= Eε σ - stress
ε - strain
E - elastic const(Young modulus)
 Cont`………………
Stress Vs. strain
 A body subjected to stress undergoes a change of shape and size known as
strain.
 Elastic strain is reversible so that removal of stress leads to a removal of strain.
 Plastic strain: partly irreversible (permanent strain results)
 If the stress is increased still further the body fails by fracture

Fig. 3.1 A typical stress-strain curve for a solid body

 Cont`………….
Stress Vs. strain
 Wave through the Earth
Characteristics of the elastic wave propagation
 Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two points of the wave that have similar displacements. Its

measurement unit is [m].

 Amplitude (A) of the wave is the maximum displacement of the particle motions within a

wavelength. Usually it has no measurement unit.

 Time period (T) is the time between two points of the wave that have similar displacements. Its

measurement unit is [ms] or [sec].

 Frequency (f) is the cycle / or repetition of the seismic wave. Its measurement unit is [Hz]. Frequency

and time period are related by a reciprocal relationship: f = 1/T.

 Velocity (V) is the speed of wavefront that can be determined by

V = distance/time [m/s] or if the wavelength and frequency are known by

V = λ/T= λf .

 Phase (φ) of the wave is a feature along that the travelling wave disturbance is the same. Its
 Cont`………………

Fig. 3.2 Shows characteristics elastic wave propagation

 Cont`………………
Seismic Waves

Body waves Surface waves

P-wave Love-wave

S-wave Rayleigh wave

 Cont`…………………
Body Waves: P and S-wave

 Body waves are elastic disturbances that are propagated from point to
point inside the rock.
 Body waves are reflected, and transmitted at interfaces where the
seismic velocity and density change, and
 they obey Snell’s law
 Cont`…………………
P -wave
 P-wave is an elastic body wave in which particle motion direction is parallel to
wave propagation.
 The longitudinal or compressional wave represent a change in volume

 P-waves are most correctly called dilatational or irrotational waves.

 Cont`………………..
S -wave
 S-wave is a body wave in which the motion of particles is perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation.
 Shear waves : the transverse, secondary or S-waves of earthquake
seismology
 S-waves causes no volume change because the dilatation is zero.
 S-waves are most correctly called rotational or equivoluminal waves
 Cont`……………………..
 The speeds at which dilatational and rotational waves travel are termed the
P-wave and S-wave seismic velocities .
 The P- and S-wave velocities depend on the physical properties of the
material through which the wave travels:
=
Poisson`s ratio σ = (VP2 - 2VS2)/2(VP2 - VS2)

= = =(- )
Where, Incompressibility (λ) is the resistance of the rock against
compressional stress, rigidity (µ) is the resistance of the rock against shear
deformation.
 They are called elastic rock properties and ρ is the density of rocks.
 Cont`…………………..
 P-waves involve change of volume and shape, whereas S-waves
involve no change in volume
 Since the bulk modulus ( K) must be positive, and show that P-
waves always travel faster than S-waves.
 The rigidity (µ) for a liquid is zero, a liquid has no rigidity and can
not sustain shear;
 Therefore indicates that S-waves cannot be propagated through
liquids.
 S-waves cannot be transmitted through the Earth’s liquid outer core.
 Cont`……………..
 The Factors that affect the seismic waves velocities of
rocks: compositions, textures (e.g. grain shape and degree
of sorting), porosities and contained pore fluids, rocks
differ in their elastic moduli and densities
Table 3.2 P- and S-wave velocities in some materials
 Cont`……………..
Surface Waves: Love and Rayleigh wave

 Surface waves can propagate along the boundary of the solid

 Surface waves are seismic waves that are guided along the surface of

the Earth and the layers near the surface.

 They do not penetrate into the deep interior.

 It penetrates up to approximately one wavelength

 Surface waves are generated best by shallow earthquakes

 Surface waves: larger in amplitude and longer in duration than body

waves, and, because their velocities are lower than those of body
 Wave through the Earth
Surface Waves

 Dispersion means that a wave train changes shape as it travel

 Their propagation velocity is frequency dependent

 Dispersion curve describes the frequency dependence of propagation

velocity.
 Dispersion curve can be converted to a model of shear wave velocity

 Surface waves analysis are useful for:

- seismic hazard assessment's,

- examination of foundation soil and

 Cont`……………….
Rayleigh Waves:

 Rayleigh wave: propagate along a free surface, or along the boundary between two

dissimilar solid media. It is known as the ground roll

 The particle motions for these waves being vertical plane, perpendicular to a free
surface and parallel the direction of wave propagation .
 It is occur close to the surface of a semi-infinite medium.
 This waves: recorded both by the vertical and the horizontal component of a
seismometer.
 The amplitude of Rayleigh waves decays exponentially with depth beneath the surface.

 The amplitude of any particular frequency component is dependent upon the following

ratio =
 Cont`…………………….
Love Waves:
 Love waves are polarized shear waves which is a particle motion

parallel to the free surface and perpendicular to the direction of wave

propagation

 The velocity of Love waves is intermediate between the shear wave

velocity of the surface layer and that of deeper layers

 Love waves occur when there is a general increase of S-wave velocity

with depth.

 The Love-wave particle motion is transverse and horizontal, so they

 Cont`……………
Surface Waves: Love and Rayleigh Wave

Fig. 3.4. The particle motion for surface waves. (After Bolt (1976).)
 Earthquake Seismology
What is an earthquake ?

 An earthquake occurs as the result of a slow build-up of strain

(deformation) in rock, usually caused by the relative motion of adjacent

plates. When a volume of rock can no longer resist movement,

 Earthquake is sudden release stored energy due to fault/ plate tectonics
movement
- Energy released radiates in all directions from its source, the focus
- Energy is in the form of waves
- Sensitive instruments around the world record the event
 This natural events can neither predicated nor prevented
 Cont`……………….
Location of Earthquake

 The earthquake focus or hypocenter is the point in the Earth where the earthquake

nucleated.

 It is specified by latitude, longitude and depth beneath the surface.

 The earthquake epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface vertically above the

focus

 For an earthquake beneath California, the focus might be at 37◦N, 122◦W, and 10

km depth.

 The epicenter for this earthquake would be 37◦N, 122◦W.

 In fact, earthquakes do not occur exactly at points; rather the stress releases occur
 Cont`………………..
Location of Earthquake

Fig. 3.7 Earthquake focus and epicenter

 Earthquake Seismology
Location of Earthquake

 Assume that an earthquake occurs at the surface at time

 There are three unknowns: time of origin, latitude and longitude.

 To determine these three unknowns:

 we need to know the arrival times of seismic waves at three nearby seismometers.

 If the shallow P-wave velocity is α and the shallow S-wave velocity is β,

 then the time taken for P-waves to travel from the focus to seismometer 1 at distance is .

 Similarly, the travel time for the S-waves is

 The arrival time of P-waves at seismometer 1 is then + , and the arrival time of S-waves at

seismometer 1 is + ,


 Earthquake Seismology
Location of Earthquake
 and similarly for seismometers 2 and 3.
 If we assume values for α and β, we now have three linear equations with three
unknowns, , and , which can easily be solved:
=, = =
 It would be simplest to solve this simple example graphically by drawing a map of
the area,
 Marking the seismometers and then drawing an arc of a circle of radius about
seismometer 1, another radius about seismometer 2 and another radius about
seismometer 3.
 The focus of the earthquake is then at the intersection of the three arcs (Fig. 3.8).
 Cont`……………
Location of Earthquake

Fig. 3.8 A map showing the location of seismometers 1, 2 and 3. The earthquake focus

is at distances from seismometer 1, from seismometer 2 and from seismometer 3. The

focus can be located by drawing an arc of a circle of radius r1 about seismometer 1 and

then repeating this for seismometers 2 and 3 (radii and respectively. The point at
 Cont`………..
Location of earthquake
 Focal depths can be determined from measurement of the difference
in travel time between the P phase and the pP phase (pP denotes as P-
wave reflected at the Earth’s surface in the vicinity of the earthquake,
as in Fig. 3.9).
 The P-phase travels along path FS has arrival time ,
 whereas the pP phase travels along path FRS has arrives at time .
 At teleseismic distances (FR) is small compared with FS, so to a first
approximation, the length FR is given by:

FR= ( –)
 Cont`……………

Location of earthquake
 At a reflection point the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
 The first reflection point is close to the focus, and the second is midway
between the focus and the seismometer.
 The first reflected ray is coded pP or sS, and the second is coded PP or SS.
 The difference between the arrival times of pP and P (the direct P-wave
without reflection) or sS and S can be used to determine the focal depth (EF)
of the earthquake.
 E is the epicenter, F the focus, S the seismometer and R the reflection point
close to the focus.
 Earthquake Seismology
Location of earthquake

 For shear waves (using phases sS and S), the corresponding distance would be:
FR= ()
The focal depth (h) is then given by:
h =EF=FRsin

Fig.3.9 Two points on the Earth’s surface satisfy the condition for a reflection of the P-wave or S-
wave) travelling through the mantle.
 Cont`…………
Aftershocks, foreshocks and swarms
 Frequently, a strong earthquake is followed by a sequence of aftershocks, which

can continue for months.

 An earthquake is defined as an aftershock if its distance from the main

earthquake is less than the length of that ruptured fault plane.

 Aftershocks occur during a period of readjustment following the main shock, in

which small localized strains on the fault are released.

 Deep-focus earthquakes do not usually have aftershocks.

 The aftershocks are normally much smaller than the main earthquake and

gradually decrease in magnitude.

 Cont`………..
Aftershocks, foreshocks and swarms
 Sometimes the main earthquake is preceded by a small foreshock.
 Unfortunately, it is not usually possible to identify it as a foreshock until after
the main event has occurred.
 Earthquake swarms are yet another sequence of activity.
 In a swarm there is no main earthquake
 However, instead a large number of small shocks, often with many occurring
every day.
 The numbers of shocks build up slowly to a maximum and then die down again.
 Most earthquake swarms occur in volcanic areas, especially along the mid-
ocean ridges, and these events usually have very shallow focus .
 Cont`…………
Earthquake magnitude and
moment
 Measurements of magnitude have been extended globally to
earthquakes at all depths, distances and to both body and surface
waves.
 These are quantitative scales that give an estimate of the size of the
earthquake.
 Richter’s name is known around the world because press releases on
earthquakes invariably quote magnitude as being ‘on the Richter
scale’.
 Magnitude scales for earthquakes are all logarithmic and are based
 Cont`……….
Earthquake magnitude and
moment
 In addition, there are other intensity scales: the Mercalli scale,
which are subjective and are based on
-the shaking and damage to buildings,
-breaking of glass
- ground cracking
- people running outside
 Maps showing the extent of earthquake damage would normally
utilize an intensity scale.
 Cont`…………………
Earthquake magnitude and
moment
 All the magnitude scales are of the form:

M =() +q(
Where, M is the magnitude,

A is the maximum amplitude of the wave (in m),

T is the period of the wave (in seconds),

q is a function correcting for the decrease of amplitude of the wave with distance from the

epicenter and focal depth,

is the angular distance from seismometer to epicenter

h is the focal depth of the earthquake

a is an empirical constant related to the seismograph, and its site location and subsurface
 Cont`………….
Earthquake magnitude and
moment
 For shallow-focus (<50 km) teleseismic earthquakes (those with 20◦ < <160◦) a
surface-wave magnitude can be defined as

M =()max+1.66
 The amplitude (A) used is the maximum of the horizontal component of the
Rayleigh wave in the period range 18–22 s.
 A correction must be applied to Eq. above for earthquakes with focal depths
greater than 50 km:

)corrected =+(h)

(h) is the correction for focal depth (h).

 The maximum value of (h) (0.4) is used for any earthquake with a focal depth
 Cont`……………….
Earthquake magnitude and
moment
 At ranges shorter than 20◦ (approximately 2200 km), a correction,
() ,
 Must also be made to Eq. above to account for differences in
absorption, scattering, geometrical spreading and dispersion:

)corrected =+()
 Estimates of this correction vary between 0.6 and 0.1.
 Because deep-focus earthquakes are not effective at generating
surface waves, a better magnitude scale for them is based on body
waves (P- and S-waves).
 Cont`…………..
Earthquake magnitude and
moment
 A first suggestion by Gutenberg (1945) for body-wave magnitude of shallow-focus earthquakes for P,

PP and S waves of period 12 s was:

=()+0.01

 Many more recent determinations of the calibration function q( , h) in

M =() +q(

 have been made since then, but the one generally used today is still the Gutenberg–Richter (Gutenberg

and Richter 1956) calibration function:

 q (, h) for P-waves is not strongly dependent on focal depth and increases from ∼6.0 at = 10◦ through

∼6.5 at = 80◦ to ∼8.0 at = 110◦.

 The period (T) of the first arriving P-wave that has travelled through the crust and mantle will

generally be 0.1–5 s:
 Cont`…………
Earthquake magnitude and
moment
 Values of and calculated for an earthquake are not usually the same:

 The two magnitude scales will not agree on the magnitude of an earthquake.

 on body waves with period 1–5 s and on surface waves with period 18–22

s.

 For a shallow-focus earthquake: the surface-wave magnitude will be more

reliable than the body-wave magnitude.

 The – data plots vary appreciably from one earthquake region to the next,

but a worldwide average of – relations is

=2.94 +0.55
 Cont`………
Earthquake magnitude and
moment

 The two magnitude scales coincide at magnitude 6.5.

 For small magnitudes, is greater than , and for large magnitudes, is less than .

 The seismic moment( )of an earthquake is expressed as:

=
Where, µ is the shear modulus, A the area of the fault, and u the average displacement on the

fault.

 The seismic moment is a physical quantity with a unique value for any earthquake.

 It can be determined by observations and estimates of the fault-plane area and displacement

 However, it can also be expressed in terms of the low frequency (<0.005 Hz) amplitude

spectra of surface waves.

 Cont`…………….
Earthquake magnitude and
moment
 Both the body-wave and the surface-wave magnitude scales saturate for very

large earthquakes and are strongly dependent on the frequency content of the
seismic wave.
 Therefore, to estimate the size of large earthquakes, long-period (low-frequency)

waves are used.

 A magnitude scale, the moment magnitude is obtained from the seismic moment

and is a more reliable measure of the magnitude of an earthquake than is either or.
 The moment magnitude () is defined as:

Where, is the seismic moment

 Cont`…………….
Earthquake magnitude and
moment
Table 3.1 Earthquake magnitudes and corresponding descriptors
 Seismic Methods
 The fundamental purpose of seismic surveys is accurately to record the ground motion
caused by a known source in a known location.
 In principle, seismic data acquisition requires:

- Generate a seismic pulse with a suitable source

- Detect the seismic waves in the ground with a suitable transducer
- Record and display the seismic waveforms on a suitable seismograph(recording
system )
 On land, a geophone, which converts ground motion into an analogue electrical signal
 In water, hydrophones, which convert pressure changes into electrical signals.
 Each receiver's response to a single shot is known as a “trace” and is recorded onto a
data storage device, then the shot location is moved along and the process is repeated.
 Cont`d………………….
Land Seismic surveying
i

Fig. 3.13 seismic method data acquisition in

land surveying
 Cont`d…………………
Marine Seismic Surveying

Fig. 3. 14 Basic principles of reflection and refraction

seismology ( AfterChristian H€ ubscher , 2014)
 Cont`……….
 Type of Seismic methods used for detection of earthquakes:
I. Refraction semiology
II. Reflection seismology
III. Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW)
IV. Seismic tomography
 Cont`…………..
Refraction Seismology Reflection Seismology
• Based on contrasts in seismic • Based on contrasts in seismic
wave speed wave impedance
• Material properties determine • Material properties determines:
only wave speed wave speed and wave
• Measured operative physical impedance
property: Only travel time • Measured operative physical
• No need to record amplitude properties: Travel time and
completely amplitude
• Relatively cheep • Must record amplitude
• Source-receiver distance large correctly
compare to investigation • Relatively expensive
depth • Source - receiver distance small
compare to investigation depth
 Refraction seismology
 The seismic refraction method uses seismic energy that returns to the
surface after travelling through the ground along refracted ray paths
 The first arrival of seismic energy at a detector offset from a seismic
source always represents either a direct ray or a refracted ray.
 The results give a generalized expressions relating travel time, offset
distance and velocity to thickness of subsurface layers.
 This is used in the determination of the thickness of layers below the
surface.
 Cont`…………….
 Seismic refraction is based on Snell’s law which relates the refraction
of seismic wave at the boundary between subsurface/geological layers
of different velocity.

Fig. 16 Seismic refraction based on Snell`s law.

 Reflection Seismology
 Seismic reflection is one of a geophysical exploration method that
uses the principles of seismic method to estimate the physical
properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves.
 Seismic reflections record attributes: amplitude, phase , arrival time
and velocity that can be measured .
 The attributes define the shape and arrival time of reflection
waveforms which depend on rock properties.
 Estimation of rock properties from seismic waveforms and their
vertical and lateral changes in time and space is the essence of seismic
interpretation.
Cont`……
 Cont`……….
 Reflected energy waves are recorded over a predetermined time

period by receivers that detect the motion of the ground in

which they are placed.
 Reflection seismologists deal mainly with steep angle

reflections, which means that the source to receiver distance is

small compared to the target depth
 Cont`……….
 An incident body wave generates two reflected and two refracted waves

 The angle of the reflected longitudinal and that of refracted longitudinal wave
can be determined by Snell’s law:
 Increasing the angle of incident wave there is a situation when 2 will be equal to

 This situation is realized in the case when the elastic wave velocity in the lower
layer is greater than that of the upper one

== )=

Fig. 3.22: Shows snell`s law

 Cont`…………..
Travel-Time Curve and Its characteristics Parameters
 Seismic Tomography
 Seismic tomography is a method used for imaging the subsurface of the Earth with
seismic waves produced by earthquakes or explosions
 This became more widely available in the 1960s with the expansion of global seismic
networks and in the 1970s when digital seismograph data archives were established.
 Seismic tomography uses seismic records to create 2D and 3D images of subsurface
anomalies
- determining distribution of physical properties (elastic, inelastic, and material density)
 P, S, and surface waves can be used for tomographic models of different resolutions
based on seismic wavelength, wave source distance, and the seismograph array coverage.
 The accuracy of the model is limited by availability and accuracy of seismic data, wave
type utilized, and assumptions made in the model
 First-arrival times are the most widely used, but models utilizing reflected and refracted
phases are used in more complex models.
 Cont`………….
 A comprehensive survey of ‘passive’ (earthquake source) seismic tomography and

inversion methods as applied to local-, regional-, and global-scale studies

 P-wave data are mainly used in local models and global models in areas with

sufficient earthquake and seismograph density.

 S- and surface wave data are used in global models

- when this coverage is not sufficient: ocean basins and away from subduction zones.

 The data received at seismometers are used to solve an inverse problem,

-where in the locations of reflection and refraction of the wave paths are determined.
 Geoscientists use these images to better understand core, mantle, and plate tectonic

processes
 Cont`……………….
 Seismic tomography has to deal with the analysis of curved ray paths
which are reflected and refracted within the earth and potential
uncertainty in the location of the earthquake hypocenter.
 Seismic tomography is similar to medical x-ray computed tomography (CT
scan) in that a computer processes receiver data to produce a 3D image,

-Although CT scans use attenuation instead of traveltime difference.

 CT scans use linear x-rays and a known source

 Seismic tomography is modern exploration methods using surface shot

and detectors located in boreholes.
 In this method, subsurface zones are systematically investigated by
transmitting very large numbers of seismic rays through them.
 Cont`………………….
 The information derived from seismic tomography may be used to

predict spatial variations in,

-For example, lithology, pore fluids, or rock fracturing,

Fig. 3.10 Idealized observation scheme for a simple cross-hole seismic transmission tomography survey. Dots mark receivers,
stars mark sources. For clarity, only the ray paths from one source to all receivers (solid lines), and all sources to one receiver
 Cont`………………
 Seismic tomography aims at finding the 3-D velocity perturbations with respect to a

spherically symmetric background model from observed seismic travel times (body waves and

surface waves ).
 Cont`………………….
 A particular seismic phase has a travel time (T) which is given by a path integral
through the medium as

T vds( s ) u ( s )ds

s s
u (s)ds T T
s
obs  Tpred

where u(s) is the slowness [1/v(s)] along the paths. A travel time perturbation can
happen anywhere along the path
 A medium is discretized into blocks and thus they can calculate the path length (lj )

in each block to obtain

Ti  lij u j
T  l j u j for many observations j
j
 MASW
 MASW is indirect geophysical methods that used to determine shear
wave velocity of geomaterials (Park e al., 1999; Elin et at., 2017)
 It uses active and passive sources to generate seismic waves and
map weathered and engineering bed rocks
 It measures surface (Rayleigh waves) to generate shear wave
velocity profile of dispersion curve by inversion .
 Vs up to 30 m depth is correlated with amplification site.
 Global seismicity Distribution
 Earthquakes are routinely montoried by local and global seismic observatories that

consist of several hundred of seismography that record ground motion

 The are three fundamental sources of data used in earthquake studies :

1. Permeant seismic network: used where level of seismic activity /potential seismic hazard

is high enough to pose a significant public safety risks.

- 30- 50 seismography with spaced 30-100km apart seism installation

2. Temporary dense seismic network : is installed at epicenter of earthquake after the major

earthquake is occurred.

- 10-20 seismography with spaced 5 to 10km apart

3. Global seismic observatories (brand band seismic installation ): for large

earthquake(magnitude 4.5 or greater) study brand band waveforms (tele-seismic) record at

global seismic observatories provides additional information hypocentral depth and nature of
 Cont`…………

Fig.3.12 Global distribution of earthquakes (red dots) and seismic

stations (blue triangles) (Frederik Tilmann,2017 ).
 Shallow earthquake
Application of seismic method
detection
 Application of Refraction Seismic survey:
Mapping geological
structures
Refraction sei Groundwater and site
investigation

Site investigation

Shallow depth found mineral

investigation
 Cont`d…………
Deep earthquake detection

 Reflection seismic surveying

Mapping subsurface formation
was concerned almost exclusively with
and geological structure
the search for:
Geothermal exploration

Reflection Seismic
Mineral exploration: coal

Mapping earth internal structure

HC exploration: oil and gas

Seismic Hazard Assessment Methods (SHAM) and Micr-ozonation

Project Work: Seismic Hazard Assessment Methods (SHAM) and

Microzonation
 References
1. Fowler, C. M. R. (2004) The Solid Earth: An Introduction to
Global Geophysics, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press,
McGraw-Hill, 686p.
2. Lowrie, W. L. (1997) Fundamentals of Geophysics,
Cambridge University Pres.
3. Philip Kearey; Michael Brooks; and Ian Hill. (2002) An
Introduction to Geophysical Exploration third edition