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MITP CH 2 Slides

The document is an introduction to algorithms, focusing on the analysis of algorithms, specifically sorting algorithms like insertion sort and merge sort. It covers key concepts such as asymptotic analysis, running time, and the importance of performance in computing. The lecture emphasizes the significance of understanding algorithm efficiency and provides pseudocode examples for sorting methods.

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9 views52 pages

MITP CH 2 Slides

The document is an introduction to algorithms, focusing on the analysis of algorithms, specifically sorting algorithms like insertion sort and merge sort. It covers key concepts such as asymptotic analysis, running time, and the importance of performance in computing. The lecture emphasizes the significance of understanding algorithm efficiency and provides pseudocode examples for sorting methods.

Uploaded by

Dảk Laks
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Introduction to Algorithms

6.046J/18.401J
LECTURE 1
Analysis of Algorithms
• Insertion sort
• Asymptotic analysis
• Merge sort
• Recurrences

Prof. Charles E. Leiserson


September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.1
Course information

1. Staff 8. Course website


2. Distance learning 9. Extra help
3. Prerequisites 10. Registration
4. Lectures 11. Problem sets
5. Recitations 12. Describing algorithms
6. Handouts 13. Grading policy
7. Textbook 14. Collaboration policy

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.2
Analysis of algorithms
The theoretical study of computer-
program performance and resource usage.
What’s more important than performance?
• modularity • user-friendliness
• correctness • programmer time
• maintainability • simplicity
• functionality • extensibility
• robustness • reliability

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.3
Why study algorithms and
performance?
• Algorithms help us to understand scalability.
• Performance often draws the line between what
is feasible and what is impossible.
• Algorithmic mathematics provides a language
for talking about program behavior.
• Performance is the currency of computing.
• The lessons of program performance generalize
to other computing resources.
• Speed is fun!
September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.4
The problem of sorting

Input: sequence a1, a2, …, an of numbers.

Output: permutation a'1, a'2, …, a'n such


that a'1  a'2 …  a'n .
Example:
Input: 8 2 4 9 3 6
Output: 2 3 4 6 8 9
September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.5
Insertion sort
INSERTION-SORT (A, n) ⊳ A[1 . . n]
for j ← 2 to n
do key ← A[ j]
i←j–1
“pseudocode” while i > 0 and A[i] > key
do A[i+1] ← A[i]
i←i–1
A[i+1] = key

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.6
Insertion sort
INSERTION-SORT (A, n) ⊳ A[1 . . n]
for j ← 2 to n
do key ← A[ j]
i←j–1
“pseudocode” while i > 0 and A[i] > key
do A[i+1] ← A[i]
i←i–1
A[i+1] = key
1 i j n
A:
key
sorted
September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.7
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.8
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.9
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.10
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.11
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.12
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.13
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.14
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.15
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 3 4 8 9 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.16
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 3 4 8 9 6

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.17
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 3 4 8 9 6
2 3 4 6 8 9 done

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.18
Running time

• The running time depends on the input: an


already sorted sequence is easier to sort.
• Parameterize the running time by the size of
the input, since short sequences are easier to
sort than long ones.
• Generally, we seek upper bounds on the
running time, because everybody likes a
guarantee.

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.19
Kinds of analyses
Worst-case: (usually)
• T(n) = maximum time of algorithm
on any input of size n.
Average-case: (sometimes)
• T(n) = expected time of algorithm
over all inputs of size n.
• Need assumption of statistical
distribution of inputs.
Best-case: (bogus)
• Cheat with a slow algorithm that
works fast on some input.
September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.20
Machine-independent time

What is insertion sort’s worst-case time?


• It depends on the speed of our computer:
• relative speed (on the same machine),
• absolute speed (on different machines).
BIG IDEA:
• Ignore machine-dependent constants.
• Look at growth of T(n) as n → ∞ .
“Asymptotic Analysis”
September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.21
-notation

Math:
(g(n)) = { f (n) : there exist positive constants c1, c2, and
n0 such that 0  c1 g(n)  f (n)  c2 g(n)
for all n  n0 }
Engineering:
• Drop low-order terms; ignore leading constants.
• Example: 3n3 + 90n2 – 5n + 6046 = (n3)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.22
Asymptotic performance
When n gets large enough, a (n2) algorithm
always beats a (n3) algorithm.
• We shouldn’t ignore
asymptotically slower
algorithms, however.
• Real-world design
situations often call for a
T(n) careful balancing of
engineering objectives.
• Asymptotic analysis is a
useful tool to help to
n n0 structure our thinking.
September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.23
Insertion sort analysis
Worst case: Input reverse sorted.
n
T (n)   ( j ) n 2  [arithmetic series]
j 2
Average case: All permutations equally likely.
n
T (n)   ( j / 2) n 2 
j 2
Is insertion sort a fast sorting algorithm?
• Moderately so, for small n.
• Not at all, for large n.
September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.24
Merge sort

MERGE-SORT A[1 . . n]
1. If n = 1, done.
2. Recursively sort A[ 1 . . n/2 ]
and A[ n/2+1 . . n ] .
3. “Merge” the 2 sorted lists.

Key subroutine: MERGE

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.25
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12
13 11
7 9
2 1

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.26
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12
13 11
7 9
2 1

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.27
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9
2 1 2

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.28
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9
2 1 2

1 2

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.29
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9
2 1 2

1 2

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.30
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9
2 1 2

1 2 7

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.31
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.32
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.33
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.34
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9 11

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.35
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9 11

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.36
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9 11 12

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.37
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9 11 12

Time = (n) to merge a total


of n elements (linear time).
September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.38
Analyzing merge sort

T(n) MERGE-SORT A[1 . . n]


(1) 1. If n = 1, done.
2T(n/2) 2. Recursively sort A[ 1 . . n/2 ]
Abuse and A[ n/2+1 . . n ] .
(n) 3. “Merge” the 2 sorted lists
Sloppiness: Should be T( n/2 ) + T( n/2 ) ,
but it turns out not to matter asymptotically.

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.39
Recurrence for merge sort
(1) if n = 1;
T(n) =
2T(n/2) + (n) if n > 1.
• We shall usually omit stating the base
case when T(n) = (1) for sufficiently
small n, but only when it has no effect on
the asymptotic solution to the recurrence.
• CLRS and Lecture 2 provide several ways
to find a good upper bound on T(n).

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.40
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.41
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
T(n)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.42
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
T(n/2) T(n/2)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.43
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
cn/2 cn/2

T(n/4) T(n/4) T(n/4) T(n/4)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.44
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
cn/2 cn/2

cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4


…

(1)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.45
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
cn/2 cn/2
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4
…

(1)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.46
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4
…

(1)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.47
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4
…

(1)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.48
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn
…

…
(1)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.49
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn
…

…
(1) #leaves = n (n)

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.50
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn
…

…
(1) #leaves = n (n)
Total(n lg n)
September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.51
Conclusions
• (n lg n) grows more slowly than (n2).
• Therefore, merge sort asymptotically
beats insertion sort in the worst case.
• In practice, merge sort beats insertion
sort for n > 30 or so.
• Go test it out for yourself!

September 7, 200 Copyright © 2001-5 by Erik D. Demaine and Charles E. Leiserson L1.52

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