Computer

Organization and
Architecture
 Digital Computers
It is a digital system that performs various
computational tasks.
First electronic digital computers introduced in
the year 1940’s
were primarily used for the numerical
computations.
Digital computer uses the binary number system,
which has two digits, 0 & 1.
A Binary digit is called a bit.
In computers, information is represented in ‘Group
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 Computer
A System:
computer system is subdivided into 2 functional
units:
1.Hardware: Consists of electronic components
and electromechanical devices that comprise the
physical entity of the system.
2.Software: Consists of instructions and data
that the computer manipulates to perform various
data processing tasks.
Program: It is a sequence of instructions for the
computer
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 System Software:
Consists of collection of programs whose purpose is
to make more effective use of computer.
The programs included in the system software are
referred to as operating system.
The system software is an indispensable part of a
computer.
Application Software is a software that performs
specific tasks for an end-user.

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 WHY STUDY COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION?
It gives an insight of how a computer executes
programs internally and can help programmer to
write more effective programs.
For system programmers, a good knowledge of
Computer Organization is essential because they
need to program the bare hardware without the
support of an operating system.

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Relation between Computer
Architecture, Organization, System
program and Application program

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 Computer Architecture:
It gives the external view of the computer. It is
concerned with the structure and behavior of the
computer.
An Assembly level programmer needs to be
aware of Specific Instruction supported by the
processor, the instruction formats, the specific
registers, and their roles, the way to perform
input or output data.

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 Computer Organization:
CO is concerned with the way the hardware
components operate and the way they are
connected to form the computer system.
The various components are assumed to be in
place and the task is to investigate the
organizational structure to verify that computer
parts operate as intended.
CO gives an internal view of a computer and the
roles that internal components play during
execution of a program.
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 Block Diagram of a Digital
Computer:

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INTEL
8086
 8086 Microprocessor
Intel 8086 microprocessor is the enhanced version of
Intel 8085 microprocessor.
It was designed by Intel in 1976.
The 8086 microprocessor is a16-bit, N-channel,
HMOS microprocessor.

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 Features of 8086
Microprocessor:
• It is a 16-bit Microprocessor introduced by INTEL in
the year 1978. It requires +5V DC power supply.
• 8086 has a 20-bit address bus can access up to 220
memory locations (1 MB).
• Address ranges from 00000H to FFFFFH
• The 8086 can generate 16-bit I/O address; hence it
can access 2^16 = 65536(64K)
• I/O ports.
• It has 16-bit data bus, so it can read data from or write
data to memory and ports either 16 bits or 8 bits at a
time
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 Features of 8086
Microprocessor:
• The 8086 has multiplexed address and data
bus which reduced the number of pins needed
(AD0-AD15)
• It is available in 40 pin Dual In line
Package(DIP).
• It consists of 29,000 HMOS transistors.
• It has 6 bytes Queue It provides 14, 16-bit
registers.
• Clock frequency ranges from 5MHz to 10 MHz
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 Features of 8086
Microprocessor:
• It uses two stages of pipelining, i.e. Fetch Stage and
Execute Stage, which improves performance.
•8086 is designed to operate in two
modes Minimum Mode
•The minimum mode is selected by applying logic 1
to the MN/MX input pin • This is a single
microprocessor configuration.
Maximum Mode
•The maximum mode is selected by applying logic 0
to the MN/MX input pin • This is a multi
microprocessor configuration.
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 Components of
Microprocessor

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 Working
Principle of
Microprocessor
The microprocessor follows a sequence to
:
execute the instruction:
1. Fetch
2. Decode
3. Execute

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 Memory Segmentation
• Segmentation is the process of dividing.
•The available memory space is divided into
"chunks" called segments. Such a memory is known
as segmented memory and each segment has its
own base address.
•It is basically used to enhance the speed of
execution, so that the processor is able to fetch and
execute the data from the memory easily and fast.

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 Memory Segmentation in
8086:

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 Memory segments
1. Code segment: It holds the instruction codes of a
program.
2. Data segment: It holds the data, variables and
constants given in the program
3. Extra segment: It also holds the data of
certain string instructions.
4. Stack segment: It is used as a stack and it is used
to store the return address. It holds addresses and
data of subroutines.

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 Offset Address:
To address a specific memory location within a
segment we need an offset address.
The offset address is also 16-bit wide and it is
provided by one of the associated pointer or index
register

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 Pointers and index registers
contain offset address:
Stack Pointer and Base Pointer:
SP (Stack Pointer) : This is the 16-bit register. It
points to the program stack in stack segment.
BP (Base Pointer) : BP is also the 16-bit register. It
points to data in stack segment.
Source index: It is of 16 bits, It is used to point the
memory locations in the data segment for source
data.
Destination index: It is of 16 bits It is used to point
the memory locations in the data segment for
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 Calculating Physical
Address:
How can a 20-bit address be obtained, if there are
only 16-bit registers? Address Adder:
The BIU contains a dedicated adder which is used to
generate the 20bit physical address.
This address is formed by adding an 16 bit segment
address and a 16 bit offset address.

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Architecture of 8086
Microprocessor:

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 1. The Bus Interface Unit
(BIU):
• It generates the 20 bit physical address for
memory access.
• It fetches instructions from the memory.
• It transfers data to and from the memory and I/O.
• Maintains the 6 byte prefetch instruction queue
(supports
pipelining).

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 BIU mainly
contains
• 4 segment
registers
• 6-byte pre-fetch
queue
• Address Generation
Unit
• Instruction Pointer

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 Address Generation
Unit:
•The physical address of the instruction is
achieved by combining the segment address
with that of the offset address.

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 6-byte pre-fetch queue
• This queue is used in 8086 in order to perform
pipelining.
•As at the time of decoding and execution of the
instruction in EU, the BIU fetches the sequential
upcoming instructions and stores it in this queue.
•The size of this queue is 6-byte. This means at
maximum a 6-byte instruction can be stored in this
queue.
• The queue exhibits FIFO behavior, first in first out.

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 Instruction
Pointer:
The Instruction Pointer is a register that holds the
address of the next instruction to be fetched from
memory.

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 4 Segment Registers
1. Code Segment Register: It is a 16-bit register
and holds the address of the instruction or
program stored in the code segment of the
memory.
2. Stack segment register: The Stack segment
register is usually used to store information about
memory segment. It handles memory to store
data and addresses during execution.

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 4 Segment Registers
3.Data segment register: It holds the address of
the data segment. The data segment stores the
data in the memory whose address is present in
this 16-bit register.
4.Extra segment register: Here the starting
address of the extra segment is present. This
register basically contains the address of the string
data.

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 2. The Execution Unit
(EU):
1. EU contains Control Unit, ALU, Pointer and Index
register, Flag register, General Purpose Register,
Operands
2. EU: Fetches instructions from the Queue in BIU,
decodes and executes arithmetic and logic
operations using the ALU.
3. Sends control signals for internal data transfer
operations within the microprocessor

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 Control Unit:
It’s directs the operation of the processor.
It also signals the ALU to perform the desired
operation ALU:
It handles all arithmetic and logical operations, like
+, −, ×, /, OR, AND, NOT operations.

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 Register Organization:
A register is a very small amount of fast
memory that is built in the CPU (or Processor) in
order to speed up the operation.
Register is very fast and efficient than the other
memories like RAM, ROM, external memory etc,.
The 8086 microprocessor has a total of fourteen
registers that are accessible to the programmer.

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 General purpose
registers:
There are 8 general purpose registers, i.e., AH, AL,
BH, BL, CH, CL, DH, and DL.
AX register
This is the accumulator.
It is of 16 bits and is divided into two 8-bit registers
AH and AL to also perform 8-bit instructions.
It is used to stores the 16-bit/8 bit result of certain
ALU operations. BX register This is the base register.
It is of 16 bits and is divided into two 8-bit registers
BH and BL to also perform 8-bit instructions. It is
used to store the starting base address of the
memory area within the data segment.
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 General purpose
registers:
BX register
This is the base register. It is of 16 bits and is divided
into two 8-bit registers BH and BL to also perform 8-
bit instructions.
It is used to store the starting base address of the
memory area within the data segment.
CX register
This is the counter register.
It is of 16 bits and is divided into two 8-bit registers
CH and CL to also perform 8-bit instructions.
It is referred to as counter. Used to hold the count
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 General purpose registers:
DX register
This is the data register.
It is of 16 bits and is divided into two 8-bit registers
DH and DL to also perform 8-bit instructions.

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 Pointer and Index Registers:
SP (Stack Pointer):
is the 16-bit register. It points to the program stack in
stack segment. SP is used during instructions like
PUSH, POP, CALL, RET etc.
BP (Base Pointer) :
BP is also the 16-bit register. It points to data in
stack segment. BP can hold offset address of any
location in the stack segment. It is used to access
random locations of the stack.

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 Pointer and Index Registers:
Source index:
It holds offset address in Data Segment
during string operations
Destination index:
It is of 16 bits It holds offset address in Extra
Segment during string operations This register is
used to hold I/O port address for I/O instruction

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 Flag Register:
Flag register holds the status of the result
generated by the ALU.
The 8086 microprocessor has a 16 bit register for flag
register. In this register 9 bits are active for flags.
In that 9 flags, they are divided into 2 groups
– Conditional Flags and Control Flags

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 Flag Register:

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 6 Status Control
flags:
1. carry flag(CF) flags:
1. trap flag(TF)
2. parity flag(PF) 2. interrupt flag(IF)
3. auxiliary carry 3. direction flag(DF)
flag(AF)
4. zero flag(Z) Operand: It is a temporary
5. sign flag(S) register and is used by the
processor to hold the
6. overflow flag (O) temporary values at the time
Status flags are of operation.
updated after every
arithmetic and logic
operation.
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 Programming
Model:
The programming model of the 8086
considered to be program visible because its
registers are used during application
programming and are specified by the
instructions.
•Other registers, are considered to be program
invisible because they are not addressable directly
during applications programming,
• But may be used indirectly during system
programming.
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 Logical and Physical
Address
Addresses within a segment can range from address
00000h to address 0FFFFh. This corresponds to the
64K-bytelength of the segment. An address within a
segment is called an offset or logical address.

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 Addressing modes
of 8086
The 8086 microprocessors have 8 addressing
modes.
Two addressing modes have been provided for
instructions which operate on register or
immediate data.
These two addressing modes are:
Register Addressing: In register addressing, the
operand is placed in one of the 16-bit or 8-bit
general purpose registers.
Immediate Addressing: In immediate
addressing, the operand is specified in the
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 Addressing modes of 8086
The remaining 6 addressing modes specify the
location of an operand which is placed in a memory.
Direct Addressing: In direct addressing mode, the
operands offset is given in the instruction as an 8-
bit or 16-bit displacement element.
Register Indirect Addressing: The operand's offset is
placed in any one of the registers BX, BP, SI or DI as
specified in the instruction.

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 Addressing modes of 8086
Based Addressing: The operand's offset is the sum of
an 8-bit or 16-bit displacement and the contents of
the base register BX or BP. BX is used as base
register for data segment, and the BP is used as a
base register for stack segment.
Indexed Addressing: The offset of an operand is the
sum of the content of an index register SI or DI and an
8-bit or 16-bit displacement.
Offset (Effective Address) = [SI or DI + 8-bit
or 16-bit displacement]
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 Addressing modes
of 8086
Based Indexed Addressing: The offset of operand is
the sum of the content of a base register BX or BP
and an index register SI or DI.
Effective Address (Offset) = [BX or BP] + [SI or DI]
Here, BX is used for a base register for data segment,
and BP is used as a base register for stack segment.
Based Indexed with Displacement: In this mode of
addressing, the operand's offset is given by:
Effective Address (Offset) = [BX or BP] + [SI or DI]
+ 8-bit or 16-bit displacement

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 Instruction Set of 8086:
The sequence of commands used to tell a
microcomputer what to do is called a program,
Each command in a program is called an
instruction
The entire group of instructions that a
microprocessor supports is called Instruction
Set.
8086 has more than 20,000 instructions.

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 Classification of
Instruction Set:
1. Data Transfer Instructions
2. Arithmetic instructions
3. Bit Manipulation Instructions
4. Program Execution Transfer
Instructions
5. String Instructions
6. Processor Control Instructions

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 Data Transfer Instructions: These instructions
are used to transfer data from source to
destination. The operand can be a constant,
memory location, register or I/O port address.
Instructions to transfer a word.
Data Transfer
Instructions: MOV
PUSH
POP
PUSH
A
POPA
XCHG
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 Arithmetic Instructions: This instructions
are use to perform the arithmetic
operations like +,-
,*,/,etc. Instructions to perform addition
Arithmetic
AD Instructions:
DAA
D DAS
AD NEG
C CMP
SU MUL
B IMUL
SB
B
INC
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 Bit Manipulation Instructions:
These instructions are used at the bit level
i.e. operations like logic &shift etc These
instructions can be used for: Testing a zero
bit Set or reset a bit Shift bits across
registers

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 Program Execution Transfer Instructions:
These instructions cause change in the
sequence of the execution of instruction.
This change can be through a condition or
sometimes unconditional. The conditions
are represented by flags.
Program Execution Transfer
Instructions: CALL
RE
T
JMP
Jxx
Loo
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 String Instructions: String in assembly language
is just a sequentially stored bytes or words.
There are very strong set of string instructions in
8086. By using these string instructions, the size
of the program is considerably reduced.
String
Instructions:
CMPS
SCAS
MOV
S
REP
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 Processor Control Instructions:
These instructions control the processor
itself.8086 allows to control certain control
flags that: Causes the processing in a certain
direction processor synchronization if more
than one microprocessor attached.
ST
C
CL
C
CM
C
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