University Institute of Engineering

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION & ARCHITECTURE

(23CST-204/23ITT-204)

ER. SHIKHA ATWAL

E11186

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

BE-CSE
 INTERCONNECTION NETWORKS

 In parallel computing, Interconnection networks are very crucial for

efficient communication among all processors within a similar system.
 There are two main approaches for interconnecting
these processors: static interconnection network and Dynamic interconnection
network.
 High-speed represents a single processor or memory module or even a
group of processors.
 High-speed computer Networks aim to provide fast and efficient performance
(communication) among the nodes.
 The infrastructure supports high bandwidth and low latency.
There are two types of Interconnection Network

1.Static Interconnection Network

2.Dynamic Interconnection Network

Static Interconnection Network

 Static interconnection networks are fixed.

 In a unidirectional static interconnection network, connections between nodes
allow communication to occur in only one direction. So, the data can be
transmitted from one node to another node but not in the reverse direction.
However, in a bidirectional static interconnection network, the connection
between nodes allows communication to occur in both directions.
 The choice between both connections depends on the specific requirements of
the parallel computing system.
There are also two types of Static Interconnection
Network

a) Completely/Fully Connected Network

• Connectivity: Here each node connected to every

other node in the system, means that there is direct
connection between any pair of nodes.
• Bandwidth and Latency: So here is the highest
degree of connectivity. Advantages of fully
connected network are low latency and high
bandwidth.
• Cost and Complexity: As the number of wires
require more here so the it is expensive and it
is much complex also
• Data Transmission: Since there are direct
connections between processors, data can be
transmitted quickly and efficiently.

• Number of Links: Number of links are required

here is n(n-1)/2. Here n = 6, so total links will be
15 and each node link with (n-1) = (6-1) = 5
another nodes.
b) Limited Connection Network

It is also known as partial network, each node is connected by a subset of other

nodes. It offers advantages such as reduced cost and complexity, optimized
communication pattern and improved scalability. But they might introduce
limitations in terms of bandwidth and fault tolerance compared to Completely or
Fully connected network.
Examples: Ring Network, Tree Network, Linear array Network, Mesh
Network, Hypercube Network
Linear Network: In a liner network every system is connected linearly or in
single row fashion where if one system fails every system afterwards will stops
working.
Ring Network: There is no major difference between linear and ring network
only the difference between linear and ring is that the last node is connected to
first node in Ring Network.

Three cube Network: A “Three Cube Network” typically refers to a network

topology used in computer networking and data center design. This
topology involves three switches (or cubes) interconnected in a specific way to
provide redundancy and fault tolerance.
Two-Dimensional Network: A two-dimensional network, in
the context of computer networking and parallel computing,
typically refers to a network topology where devices or
nodes are arranged in a grid-like fashion. This type of network
structure is commonly used in various distributed
computing environments for efficient communication
between nodes.
Here are some key points regarding Limited connection network,

 Connectivity: Here we notice lower number of connections per node

compared to Completely or Fully connected network.
 Communication Paths: Communication between some nodes may be
routed through other node in this network.
 Scalability: It offers good scalability as the number of connections per node
typically grows.
 Cost and Complexity: Limited Connection Networks have lower cost
and complexity.
 Bandwidth and Latency: Limited Bandwidth compared to completely
connected networks as there are limited number of connections.
Dynamic Interconnection Network

Unlike Static Interconnection Network, where connections are fixed between node,
it enables the dynamic reconfiguration of connection to adapt to changing
communication requirements. Some key points about Dynamic Interconnection
Network:
1.Reconfiguration:

 The network can dynamically change its configuration to adapt to

different communication patterns or workloads. This allows the network to
connect any two components as needed.
 Optimizes communication paths.
 Adapts to changes in workloads.
 Supports fault recovery by rerouting around failed components.
 Example: A multistage interconnection network (e.g., Clos network) can
reconfigure to provide direct paths between active components.
2. Switching Mechanisms:

 Refers to the methods used to transfer data through the network.

Common mechanisms include:
oCircuit Switching: Establishes a dedicated path for the entire
communication.
oPacket Switching: Divides messages into packets that are routed
independently.
oWormhole Switching: Sends data in small "flits" (flow control digits) that
are transmitted in a pipeline fashion.
 Determines latency and throughput.
 Impacts network performance and efficiency.
 Example: Packet switching is commonly used in dynamic networks to
support parallel communications.
3. Flexibility:

 The ability to support various communication patterns and

configurations without major hardware changes. Dynamic networks can
handle:
oPoint-to-point communication.
oBroadcast or multicast.
oData aggregation or reduction.
 Makes the network suitable for a wide range of applications.
 Reduces the need for application-specific hardware.
 Example: A crossbar switch provides maximum flexibility by allowing
any input to connect to any output.
4. Scalability:

 The network can grow to support additional components (e.g., processors or

memory modules) without significant performance degradation.
 Supports future expansion of systems.
 Ensures consistent performance as the system size increases.
 Example: Fat-tree networks are scalable and often used in data centers
to connect a large number of servers.
5. Fault Tolerance:

 The network can detect and recover from failures in components (e.g.,
switches, links) by rerouting traffic or reconfiguring connections.
 Increases system reliability.
 Ensures continuous operation despite hardware failures.
 Example: Dynamic networks use redundant paths to reroute data in case
of link or node failures.
6. Communication Efficiency:

 Refers to the network's ability to minimize delays and maximize

bandwidth utilization for data transfer.
 Reduces latency and improves overall system performance.
 Prevents congestion and bottlenecks.
 Example: Networks with low-diameter topologies, such as hypercube or
torus, reduce the average number of hops for data transfer, enhancing
efficiency.
 Organizational Structure

Interconnection networks are composed of following three basic components −

 Links − A link is a cable of one or more optical fibers or electrical

wires with a connector at each end attached to a switch or network interface
port. Through this, an analog signal is transmitted from one end, received at
the other to obtain the original digital information stream.

 Switches − A switch is composed of a set of input and output ports, an

internal “cross- bar” connecting all input to all output, internal buffering, and
control logic to affect the input-output connection at each point in time.
Generally, the number of input ports is equal to the number of output ports.
 Network Interfaces − The network interface behaves quite differently
than switch nodes and may be connected via special links. The
network interface formats the packets and constructs the routing and
control information. It may have input and output buffering, compared to a
switch. It may perform end-to-end error checking and flow control. Hence,
its cost is influenced by its processing complexity, storage capacity, and
number of ports.
Interconnection Network
Interconnection networks are composed of switching elements. Topology
is the pattern to connect the individual switches to other elements, like
processors, memories and other switches. A network allows exchange of data
between processors in the parallel system.

 Direct connection networks − Direct networks have point-to-point

connections between neighboring nodes. These networks are static, which
means that the point-to- point connections are fixed. Some examples of
direct networks are rings, meshes and cubes.
 Indirect connection networks − Indirect networks have no fixed
neighbors. The communication topology can be changed dynamically
based on the application demands.
Indirect networks can be subdivided into three parts: bus networks,
multistage networks and crossbar switches.

oBus networks − A bus network is composed of a number of bit lines onto

which a number of resources are attached. When busses use the same
physical lines for data and addresses, the data and the address lines are
time multiplexed. When there are multiple bus-masters attached to the bus, an
arbiter is required.

oMultistage networks − A multistage network consists of multiple stages

of switches. It is composed of ‘axb’ switches which are connected
using a particular interstage connection pattern (ISC). Small 2x2 switch
elements are a common choice for many multistage networks. The number of
stages determine the delay of the network. By choosing different interstage
connection patterns, various types of multistage network can be created.
o Crossbar switches − A crossbar switch contains a matrix of simple
switch elements that can switch on and off to create or break a connection.
Turning on a switch element in the matrix, a connection between a processor
and a memory can be made. Crossbar switches are non-blocking, that is all
communication permutations can be performed without blocking.
References

Reference Books:
●J.P. Hayes, “Computer Architecture and
Organization”, Third Edition.
●Mano, M., “Computer System Architecture”,
Third Edition, Prentice Hall.
●Stallings, W., “Computer Organization and Architecture”, Eighth
Edition, Pearson Education.

Text Books:
●Carpinelli J.D,” Computer systems organization &Architecture”, Fourth
Edition, Addison Wesley.
●Patterson and Hennessy, “Computer Architecture”, Fifth Edition Morgaon
Kauffman.
Other References:

 http://cva.stanford.edu/classes/ee382c/ee482b/scribes01/lect04/ourlec
t_final.pdf
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/parallel_computer_architecture/parallel_c
omputer_arc hitecture_interconnection_network_design.htm

Video Links:

 https://youtu.be/kI546SzGbLM?si=JIJDKDoAsDEUqOCe
 https://youtu.be/jGuRdQRyIvc?si=VrResuXABzF0LZyW