Standard Forms of Boolean

Expressions
• All Boolean expressions, regardless of their form, can be converted
into either of two standard forms:
• The sum-of-products form
• The product-of-sums form
The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form
• When two or more product terms are summed by Boolean addition,
the resulting expression is a sum-of-products (SOP).
• Example:

• An SOP expression can contain a single-variable term, as in A + ABC

• In an SOP expression, a single overbar cannot extend over more than
one variable; however, more than one variable in a term can have an
overbar.
• For example, an SOP expression can have the term but not
Domain of a Boolean Expression
• The domain of a general Boolean expression is the set of variables
contained in the expression in either complemented or
uncomplemented form.
• For example,
• The domain of the expression is the set of variables A, B, C
• The domain of the expression is the set of variables A, B, C, D, E.
AND/OR Implementation of an SOP Expression
• Implementing an SOP expression simply requires ‘OR’ing the outputs of
two or more AND gates.
• A product term is produced by an AND operation, and the sum (addition)
of two or more product terms is produced by an OR operation.
• Therefore, an SOP expression can be implemented by AND-OR logic in
which the outputs of a number (equal to the number of product terms in
the expression) of AND gates connect to the inputs of an OR gate
NAND/NAND Implementation of an SOP
Expression

• By using only NAND gates, an AND/OR function can be accomplished,

Conversion of a General Expression
to SOP Form
• Any logic expression can be changed into SOP form by applying
Boolean algebra techniques.
Binary Representation of a Standard
Product Term
• A standard product term is equal to 1 for only one combination of
variable values.
• For example, the product term is equal to 1 when A=1, B=0, C=1,
D=0, and is 0 for all other combinations of values for the variables.

• In this case, the product term has a binary value of 1010

• An SOP expression is equal to 1 only if one or more of the product
terms in the expression is equal to 1.
The Standard SOP Form
• The expression has a domain made up of the variables A, B, C, and D.
• However, notice that the complete set of variables in the domain is
not represented in the first two terms of the expression; that is, is
missing from the first term and C is missing from the second term.
• A standard SOP expression is one in which all the variables in the
domain appear in each product term in the expression.
• For example, is a standard SOP expression.
Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP
• Step 1:
• Multiply each nonstandard product term by a term made up of the
sum of a missing variable and its complement.
• This results in two product terms. As you know, you can multiply
anything by 1 without changing its value.
• Step 2:
• Repeat Step 1 until all resulting product terms contain all variables
in the domain in either complemented or uncomplemented form.
• In converting a product term to standard form, the number of
product terms is doubled for each missing variable
Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP (cont…)
The Product-of-Sums (POS) Form
• When two or more sum terms are multiplied, the resulting expression
is a product-of-sums (POS).
• Example:

• A POS expression can contain a single-variable term, as in

• In a POS expression, a single overbar cannot extend over more than

one variable; however, more than one variable in a term can have an
overbar.
• For example, a POS expression can have the term but not
Implementation of a POS Expression
• Implementing a POS expression simply requires ANDing the outputs
of two or more OR gates.
• A sum term is produced by an OR operation, and the product of two
or more sum terms is produced by an AND operation.
The Standard POS Form
• For example, the expression (A + B + C)(A + B + D)(A + B + C + D) has a
domain made up of the variables A, B, C, and D. Notice that the
complete set of variables in the domain is not represented in the first
two terms of the expression; that is, is missing from the first term and
Cis missing from the second term.
• A standard POS expression is one in which all the variables in the
domain appear in each sum term in the expression.
• For example, a standard POS expression.
Converting a Sum Term to Standard
POS
• Step 1:
• Add to each nonstandard product term a term made up of the product of the
missing variable and its complement.
• This results in two sum terms. As you know, you can add 0 to anything
without changing its value.

• Step 2:
• Apply the rule A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)
• Step 3:
• Repeat Step 1 until all resulting sum terms contain all variables in the domain
in either complemented or uncomplemented form.
Converting a Sum Term to Standard POS(cont…)
Binary Representation of a Standard Sum Term

• A standard sum term is equal to 0 for only one combination of

variable values.
• For example, the sum term is 0 when A = 0, B = 1, C = 0, and D = 1,
and is 1 for all other combinations of values for the variables.

• In this case, the sum term has a binary value of 0101.

• A POS expression is equal to 0 only if one or more of the sum terms
in the expression is equal to 0.
Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS
• The binary values of the product terms in a given standard SOP expression are
not present in the equivalent standard POS expression.
• Also, the binary values that are not represented in the SOP expression are
present in the equivalent POS expression.
• Therefore, to convert from standard SOP to standard POS, the following steps are
taken:
• Step 1:
• Evaluate each product term in the SOP expression. That is, determine the binary numbers
that represent the product terms.
• Step 2:
• Determine all of the binary numbers not included in the evaluation in Step 1.
• Step 3:
• Write the equivalent sum term for each binary number from Step 2 and express in POS
form. Using a similar procedure, you can go from POS to SOP.
Converting Standard SOP to
Standard POS
Karnaugh map(KMAP)
• A Karnaugh map(KMAP) is similar to a truth table because it presents
all of the possible values of input variables and the resulting output
for each value.
• Instead of being organized into columns and rows like a truth table,
the Karnaugh map is an array of cells in which each cell represents a
binary value of the input variables.
• The cells are arranged in a way so that simplification of a given
expression is simply a matter of properly grouping the cells.
The 3-Variable Karnaugh Map
• The 3-variable Karnaugh map is an
array of eight cells,
• Binary values of A and B are along
the left side (notice the sequence)
and the values of C are across the
top.
• The value of a given cell is the binary
values of A and B at the left in the
same row combined with the value
of C at the top in the same column.
• For example, the cell in the upper
left corner has a binary value of 000
and the cell in the lower right corner
has a binary value of 101.
 The 4-Variable Karnaugh Map
• The 4-variable Karnaugh map is
an array of sixteen cells,
• Binary values of A and B are
along the left side and the
values of C and D are across the
top.
• The value of a given cell is the
binary values of A and B at the
left in the same row combined
with the binary values of C and
D at the top in the same column.
• For example, the cell in the
upper right corner has a binary
value of 0010 and the cell in the
lower right corner has a binary
value of 1010.
Cell Adjacency
• The cells in a Karnaugh map are arranged so that there is only a single-variable
change between adjacent cells.
• Adjacency is defined by a single-variable change.
• In the 3-variable map the 010 cell is adjacent to the 000 cell, the 011 cell, and the 110
cell.
• The 010 cell is not adjacent to the 001 cell, the 111 cell, the 100 cell, or the 101 cell.
• Physically, each cell is adjacent to the cells that are immediately next to it on any of
its four sides.
• A cell is not adjacent to the cells that diagonally touch any of its corners.
• Also, the cells in the top row are adjacent to the corresponding cells in the bottom
row and the cells in the outer left column are adjacent to the corresponding cells in
the outer right column.
• This is called “wrap-around” adjacency
Cell Adjacency (cont…)
Karnaugh Map SOP Minimization
• A minimized SOP expression contains the fewest possible terms with
the fewest possible variables per term. Generally, a minimum SOP
expression can be implemented with fewer logic gates than a
standard expression.
Mapping a Standard SOP Expression
• For an SOP expression in standard form, a 1 is placed on the Karnaugh
map for each product term in the expression.
• Each 1 is placed in a cell corresponding to the value of a product term.
• For example, for the product term , a 1 goes in the 101 cell on a 3-
variable map.
• When an SOP expression is completely mapped, there will be a
number of 1s on the Karnaugh map equal to the number of product
terms in the standard SOP expression. The cells that do not have a 1
are the cells for which the expression is 0. Usually, when working with
SOP expressions, the 0s are left off the map.
Mapping a Standard SOP Expression( cont…)
• Step 1:
• Determine the binary value of each product term in the standard SOP expression.
After some practice, you can usually do the evaluation of terms mentally.
• Step 2:
• As each product term is evaluated, place a 1 on the Karnaugh map in the cell
having the same value as the product term
Mapping a Standard SOP Expression: Example
• Map the following standard SOP expression on a Karnaugh map
• Solution:
Mapping a Standard SOP Expression: Example

• Map the following standard SOP expression on a Karnaugh map:

Mapping a Nonstandard SOP Expression
• A Boolean expression must first be in standard form before you use a Kmap
Numerical Expansion of a Nonstandard Product Term
• Map the following SOP expression on a Kmap:
Mapping a Nonstandard SOP Expression( cont…)

• Map the following SOP expression on a Karnaugh map

KMap Simplification of SOP Expressions
Grouping the 1s
• The goal is to maximize the size of the groups and to minimize the number
of groups.
1. A group must contain either 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 cells, which are all powers of
two.
Example- In the case of a 3-variable map 8 cells is the maximum group.
2. Each cell in a group must be adjacent to one or more cells in that same
group, but all cells in the group do not have to be adjacent to each other.
3. Always include the largest possible number of 1s in a group in accordance
with rule 1.
4. Each 1 on the map must be included in at least one group. The 1s already
in a group can be included in another group as long as the overlapping
groups include noncommon 1s
KMap Simplification of SOP Expressions example

• Group the 1s in each of the Karnaugh maps

Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the Map
1. Group the cells that have 1s.
• Each group of cells containing 1s creates one product term composed of all variables that
occur in only one form (either uncomplemented or complemented) within the group.
• Variables that occur both uncomplemented and complemented within the group are
eliminated. These are called contradictory variables.
2. Determine the minimum product term for each group.
a) For a 3-variable map:
1. A 1-cell group yields a 3-variable product term
2. A 2-cell group yields a 2-variable product term
3. A 4-cell group yields a 1-variable term
4. An 8-cell group yields a value of 1 for the expression
b) For a 4-variable map:
1. A 1-cell group yields a 4-variable product term
2. A 2-cell group yields a 3-variable product term
3. A 4-cell group yields a 2-variable product term
4. An 8-cell group yields a 1-variable term
5. A 16-cell group yields a value of 1 for the expression
3. When all the minimum product terms are derived from the Karnaugh map, they
are summed to form the minimum SOP expression.
Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the Map example
• Determine the product terms for the Kmap and write the resulting minimum SOP
expression.
• Eliminate variables that are in a grouping in both
complemented and uncomplemented forms.
• The product term for the 8-cell group is B because
the cells within that group contain both A and A, C
and C, and D and D, which are eliminated.
• The 4-cell group contains B, B, D, and D, leaving the
variables A and C, which form the product term AC.
• The 2-cell group contains B and B, leaving variables A,
C, and D which form the product term ACD.
• Notice how overlapping is used to maximize the size
of the groups. The resulting minimum SOP expression
is the sum of these product terms
Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the Map example
Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the Map example
• Use a Karnaugh map to minimize the following standard SOP expression
• Solution:
• Notice the “wrap around” 4-cell group that includes the top
row and the bottom row of 1s.
• The remaining 1 is absorbed in an overlapping group of two
cells.
• The group of four 1s produces a single variable term, .
• This is determined by observing that within the group,
B is the only variable that does not change from cell to
cell.
• The group of two 1s produces a 2-variable term .
• This is determined by observing that within the group,
A and C do not change from one cell to the next.
• The product term for each group is shown. The resulting
minimum SOP expression is
Mapping Directly from a Truth Table
• From the example given below it can be seen that the 1s in the output column of the truth table are mapped
directly onto a Karnaugh map into the cells corresponding to the values of the associated input variable
combinations,
Don’t care conditions
Don’t care conditions example
• In a 7-segment display, each of the seven segments is activated for various digits.
• For example, segment ‘a’ is activated for the digits 0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, as
illustrated in the figure below. Since each digit can be represented by a BCD
code, derive an SOP expression for segment ‘a’ using the variables ABCD and
then minimize the expression using a Karnaugh map.
 Don’t care conditions example
solution
• The expression for segment a is
a
• Each term in the expression represents one of the digits in which segment ‘a’ is used.

𝑎= 𝐴+ 𝐶+ 𝐵𝐷+ 𝐵 𝐷