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Fundamentals of Programming and Algorithms

The document provides an overview of programming, algorithms, and data structures, emphasizing their importance in creating efficient and effective software. It explains programming as the process of writing instructions for computers, while algorithms serve as step-by-step procedures for problem-solving. Additionally, it discusses data structures as methods for organizing and managing data to enhance program performance and efficiency.

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kaimkhaniabdullah78
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9 views17 pages

Fundamentals of Programming and Algorithms

The document provides an overview of programming, algorithms, and data structures, emphasizing their importance in creating efficient and effective software. It explains programming as the process of writing instructions for computers, while algorithms serve as step-by-step procedures for problem-solving. Additionally, it discusses data structures as methods for organizing and managing data to enhance program performance and efficiency.

Uploaded by

kaimkhaniabdullah78
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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FUNDAMENTALS OF

PROGRAMMING AND
ALGORITHMS​
Programming
Definition of Programming refers to the process of designing and writing

instructions that a computer can follow to perform specific tasks. These

instructions are written using programming languages like Python, Java, or

C++. Essentially, programming is how humans communicate with

computers to make them perform everything from simple calculations to

complex problem-solving processes.


It involves:
Understanding the problem you want to solve.
Planning a step-by-step solution (often in the form of an algorithm).
Translating that plan into code using the rules of a programming language.
Testing and debugging to make sure it works correctly.
ALGORITHM
An algorithm is a step-by-step set of instructions or a procedure

designed to perform a specific task or solve a particular problem. Think

of it like a recipe in cooking: just as a recipe gives you a list of steps to

make a dish, an algorithm provides a clear sequence to follow to get the

correct output from a given input.

In programming, algorithms are essential because they lay out the logic

of a solution before it's turned into code. A well-designed algorithm

ensures the program runs efficiently and accurately.


REVELANCE OF ALGORITHM
Relevance of Algorithms in Programming means understanding how

algorithms play a vital role in writing efficient and effective code. In

programming, algorithms act like the plan or strategy behind the code

— they define how a task will be performed. A good algorithm ensures

that the program not only works correctly but also runs quickly and

uses resources wisely. Without well-thought-out algorithms, even a

well-written program can be slow, take up too much memory, or fail

with large inputs. So, algorithms are the foundation for solving

problems in programming logically and efficiently.


INTRODUCTION TO DATA
STRUCTURES
Organizing and Managing Data Efficiently
What is a Data Structure?
A data structure is a special way of organizing and storing data

in a computer so that it can be accessed, modified, and

processed efficiently.In programming, how you store and

arrange your data directly affects:

The speed of operations (searching, sorting, inserting, deleting)

The amount of memory used

The complexity of your program


Why are Data Structures Important?
They help manage large amounts of data in an organized

way. They improve the efficiency of algorithms and make

programs run faster. The right data structure makes it

easier to perform tasks like: Storing values Sorting and

searching Handling real-life problems like networks, maps,

and hierarchies.
Common Categories of Data
Structures:
Organizing and Storing Data

Data structures help in organizing data in a systematic way.


For example:
•Arrays store data in a continuous block.
•Linked Lists store data in connected nodes.
•Stacks and Queues manage data in specific orders.
•Trees and Graphs structure data in a hierarchy or network.
Why Data Structures Are
Important
Manage Large Data Efficiently
When programs handle huge amounts of data, it can quickly become difficult to
organize, search, and update. Data structures help arrange this data in a way
that makes it easy to manage, access, and manipulate — whether it’s thousands
of student records, messages in a chat app, or files in a computer system.
Example: A database table uses structured arrays and linked lists behind the
scenes to manage millions of records efficiently.
Improve Program Speed
The speed of your program depends a lot on how data is stored and accessed.
Using the right data structure ensures that operations like
searching, inserting, deleting, or sorting data happen as fast as possible.
Example:
A Binary Search Tree (BST) can find an element in O(log n) time, much faster than searching
through a simple list.
Fundamentals of
Computer Networking"
Connecting the World, One Node at a Time"
What is Networking?

• Networking refers to the practice of linking computing


devices to share resources (data, printers, internet) and
communicate.

Key Terms:
• Nodes: Devices like PCs, servers, or routers.
• Links: Wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) connections
Types of Networks
1.LAN (Local Area Network):
1.Definition: Covers a small area (e.g., home, office).
2.Image: Office setup with PCs and a switch.

2.WAN (Wide Area Network):


1.Definition: Spans large distances (e.g., the internet).
2.Image: Map with connected cities.

3.MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):


1.Definition: City-wide coverage (e.g., university campuses).
Common Network Topologies
• Star Topology: All devices connect to a central hub.
Image: Star-shaped diagram.

• Bus Topology: Single backbone cable links all devices.


Image: Linear device connection.

• Mesh Topology: Every device connects to every other.


Image: Web-like connections.
The OSI Model Explained
• PHYSICAL LAYER:

The Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the


OSI model that handles the transmission
and reception of raw data bits over a physical
medium (like cables or wireless signals). It deals
with electrical, mechanical, and timing aspects
of communication but does not interpret data.
Key Functions

• - Converts bits into signals


(electrical/optical/wireless).

• - Defines cables, connectors, and data rates.

• - Manages synchronization and physical


topology.
**Examples:** Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi radio
waves, USB, fiber optics.
The OSI Model Explained
• DATA LINK LAYER:
The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI
model, responsible for reliable node-to-node
communication over a physical link.
Key Functions:
Framing: Packages raw bits into structured frames.
Error Control: Detects/corrects errors (using CRC, checksums).
Flow Control: Manages data transmission speed.
MAC Addressing: Uses hardware addresses (e.g., Ethernet
MAC) to identify devices.
Access Control: Manages shared media access (e.g., CSMA/CD
in Ethernet)
Key Functions
- Converts bits into signals (electrical/optical/wireless).
- - Defines cables, connectors, and data rates.
- - Manages synchronization and physical topology.
- Examples:: Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi radio waves, USB, fiber
The OSI Model Explained
The Transport Layer is the fourth layer in the OSI model, responsible
for end-to-end communication, data reliability, and flow
control between devices across a network.

Key Functions:

• Segmentation & Reassembly: Breaks data into smaller units (segments


in TCP, datagrams in UDP) and reassembles them at the destination.

• Connection Control:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-oriented
communication with error checking and retransmission.

• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Offers faster, connectionless communication


with no guarantees.

• Flow Control: Manages data transmission speed to prevent overwhelming


the receiver (e.g., TCP sliding window).

• Error Control: Ensures data integrity via acknowledgments (ACKs) and


retransmissions (TCP only).

• Multiplexing/Demultiplexing: Uses port numbers to direct data to the


correct application (e.g., HTTP → port 80).

• Examples: TCP, UDP, SCTP, QUIC

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