1

Business Research: Contents

Unit Title Slide No.

Syllabus & Text Books 3 to 7

Unit 1 Introduction to Business Research 9 to 144

Purpose/objectives 32 t0 53
Types of research 54 to 55
Qualities of good research 56 to 70
Research Process: Steps 119 to 130
Ethics in research 131 to 144
Plagiarism
Characteristics
Unit 2 Research Design, Methods, Hypothesis Testing 235 to 269, 270 to 341

Data Collection, Analysis, presentation, graphs 363 to 405

Unit4 Sampling: Methods & errors 412 to 442

Unit 5 Report writing 342 to 352

Research Proposal 353 to 361
Data Processing (363 to 405)

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Research Methodology: Contents
Appendix: Questionnaire design Slide 443

3
Business Research Syllabus
Course Contents:
Unit 1: Introduction to Business Research
(6 Lectures):
 Purpose and characteristics of business
research, quantitative and qualitative
perspectives, Categories of business research –
Basic and Pure, applied and policy-oriented
research, Criteria for Good Business Research
Study, Steps in Business Research Study /
Business Research Function, The Role of
Business Research in Making Decisions
4
Business Research Syllabus
Unit 2 Research Method and Design, Research
Problem and Hypothesis (10 lectures)
Definition of Business Research Design, Types of
Business Research design, Objectives and
characteristics of different types of Business
Research Designs, Tools and techniques used for
different types of research design, Applications of
different types of designs, Internal Validity and
External Validity, Conceptual mapping, Hypothesis,
the necessity for a Hypothesis, Types of Hypothesis,
Hypothesis testing, and Importance of Hypothesis
in decision making.
5
Business Research Syllabus
 Unit 3 Methods and Techniques of Data Collection.
(10 lectures)
 Types of Data, Data Collection for primary data
– planning the study, modes of primary data collection, and
different types of studies for collecting primary
data, Secondary Data Collection – General sources of
secondary information, industry-specific sources of
secondary information, and Advantages and Disadvantages
of secondary data, Different tools and methods for
primary data collection – Questionnaire design, Features
of the questionnaire, Questionnaire development, Steps
involved in designing the questionnaire. Measurement and
scaling – primary levels of measurement, scaling
techniques – comparative and non- comparative.
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Business Research Syllabus
 Unit 4 – Sampling and Sampling Methodologies (9
lectures)
 Sampling – Sample versus Census, Fundamental elements of
Sampling, Sampling in the Business Environment, Advantages
of Sampling, The Sampling Process, Types of Sampling
Methods, Probability Sampling Methods, Non Probability
Sampling Methods, Characteristics of a good sample design.

 Unit 5- Data Processing and Report Writing (10 lectures)
 Data Editing and coding, Tabulation, Univariate, Bivariate, and
Multivariate Analysis- Preliminary analysis, An insight into the
research report and proposal, Research Report and Writing,
Guidelines for Writing a Report, Approaches to Report Writing,
Process of Writing Report.
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Research Methodology: Text
Books
Business Research Methods
Authors:
Dr. J. Mexon
Dr. A. Ananda Kumar

Publisher: Sky Fox Publishing Group

First Edition: 2020

8
Business Research Text Books
Text Books:
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P.S. (2020).
Business research methods (13th Ed.)
McGraw-Hill Education
Gupta, S. L., & Gupta, H., (2012). Business
research methods. McGraw-Hill Education
Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., &
Griffin, M. (2020). Business research methods
(10th ed.). Cengage Learning

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Business Research: Text Books

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Unit 1: Fundamentals of Research
Meaning of Methodology:
systems of methods
principles & procedures
Examples of research methods:
Experimental methods, Publishing methods,
How to write your thesis, How to review
existing literature, how to finance research

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Business Research
Main Concepts in this course:
1. What is research and why do we want to do it?
2. What are the steps in doing research? How do
we plan for research?
3. What data do we need for doing research and
how do we collect it?
4. How do we select people for data collection
(Sampling)
5. What can we do with data collected? How to
write our research report?

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What is Research? (1)
1. A careful investigation for new facts in
any branch of knowledge
Investigation: inquiry into activities
2. A systematic effort to gain new knowledge
Systematic: order and planning
3. Formulating & testing hypothesis:
proposal, assumption, tentative opinion to
be verified
4. Collecting, analyzing, Data. Reaching
conclusions
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What is research
Examples
Impact of Digital or online marketing
on Business Profitability.
Digital transformation and corporate
sustainability
Analyzing the role of personalization and
customization in digital relationship
marketing

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What is research?
More Examples
The role of diversity and inclusion in
the workplace
Advantages of increasing brand awareness ·
Social media as a new market
Example of hypothesis: ‘Lower Prices are
counterproductive in the long run’

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What is Research?
• Hypothesis: Assumption: Examples:
• Hypothesis: If we offer a discount on our
product, then we will attract more customers
and increase sales
• Hypothesis:
• Product pricing should be decided by price
elasticity of the demand
• Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads
to obesity
• Poor people buy more loteries
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Research Methodology
Relevance of BRM: If you are not doing
research, even then, is studying BRM still
required?
Same concepts required when writing essays,
doing projects, writing project reports.

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RM
The earliest recorded use of the term Research
was in 1577
Sanskrit name Shodh, Marathi word: Sanshodhan,
Hindi word: Anusandhan
The English word research is derived from the
Middle French "recherche", which means "to go
about seeking”
Jin Khoja tin Payiya, Gehare Pani Path, Main
Bapura Booden dara, raha kinare baith (Kabir)
Those who seek, must go deep. I stayed on shore,
being afraid to drawn.
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RM
the term “Research” means any one of the following
or any combination from the following :
Finding a new way to solve an old problem (e.g.
medical)
Finding a way to solve a new problem.(New
disease)
Finding a flaw in existing concept or theory and
proposing ways to rectify it.
Analysis of all the available ways ( which already
exist) to solve a particular problem and then
selecting the best way
.
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Research Methodology
Research:
Analysis of different propositions and
opinions of different researchers on a specific
topic and drawing a conclusion by clearly
specifying the merits and demerits of all the
propositions and opinions of different
researchers.

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RM: Motivation & Objectives (1)
Motivation: Psychological feeling which
arouses an individual to action, inspiration
What motivates you to study?
Motivation and Objectives?
Objectives: a goal intended to be attained,
aim, purpose:
Examples: good placements, money,
knowledge,
Sales target, profits

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Difference :Objectives &
Motivations
 Motivations

 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its

consequential benefits
 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the
unsolved problems
 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some
creative work
 4. Desire to be of service to society

 5. Desire to get respectability

 6. Directives of government, employment

conditions etc.
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RM
Objectives

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RM
Objectives

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RM
Assessment: The act of judging, appraisal,
may not be quantitative
example:
A manager appraising an employee’s work
during the year
Exploration: you don’t know the real reason
for employee’s dissatisfaction. You want to
explore what can be the reason


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RM
Evaluation: Act of ascertaining or fixing the value
or worth of. Evaluation of answer sheets: giving
marks
Examination: A detailed inspection: A doctor’s
check up
Comparison: Relation based on similarities and
differences: SWOT analysis
Estimation: An approximate calculation of quantity,
degree or worth: e.g. estimated cost of the project
Propagation: The spreading of something (a belief
or practice) into new regions

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 Why do we do research?
Objectives, Motivation,
Reasons
What can you do in research:
Validate intuition: Can antibiotics treat Covid19?
2. Improve methods. Measurement of pitch
3. Find Characteristics of an individual: e.g. what
makes a politician successful? What makes a good
manager?
Manager Vs. Leaders, attribute, distinguishing quality
4. Diagnostics. What is the basic cause of
Parkinson’s disease?
5. To test a hypothesis. Trial, SOP
6. publication/patent
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Significance of research
• How research can help:
• All progress is born out of enquiry: find new
elements
• Inculcates scientific, logical thinking,
quantitative approach
• Clarify Doubts is better than overconfidence
• Economic policies/Govt. policies are formulated
after research
• Better Policies: Companies marketing policies
are formulated after market research, business
research
• Better decision making after research
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Significance of research
How research can help
Solve: Operational and Planning Problems
in business & industries are solved (e.g. how
many products to manufacture? How to best to
solder?)
Help understand Social relationships E.g.
in elephants mother is the leader, Matriarchal
society, understanding behaviour of tribes,
anthropological research, psychology
Help Understand customers: Market research:
to understand mind of the customer
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Relevance in career
How research can help:
A paper published, reading a paper in
conference can add to your Resume (shows
your keen nature, inclination to original
thinking, problem solving ability)
Can it get you a better job? Yes, certainly if
you are in academics.
Increased knowledge can improve career

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Methods, techniques, &
methodology
• Field research:
• Method: personal interview
• Technique: a part of method e.g. Interviewer uses a
detailed schedule with open and closed questions
• Methodology: combination of several integrated
methods
• E.g. field research methodology: personal
interviews, questionnaire, telephone survey etc.
• A way of systematically solving a problem
• The difference in methods, techniques, and
methodology is in the scope.
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Research & Scientific methods
Are research methods and scientific methods
same?
Experimentation: in physics, chemistry,
in medicine: real drugs vs. placebo
Observation: what is happening at various stages
of experimentation:
Repeatability of the results
interrelation of facts
logical arguments, implication
Ethical neutrality
Probabilistic (Stochastic), deterministic
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Types of research (Categories)
Types of research

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Types of research (Categories)
Types of research

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Fundamental research
1.Fundamental research is driven by curiosity
and the 2.desire to expand knowledge in
specific research area.advancement of
knowledge, rather than solving a problem.
3.Its application may not be the priority,
Application may even be unknown
4. Explains general reasons behind events &
occurences
5.Done in all fields, specifically in science,
astronomy,
engineering
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Fundamental research
Examples:
Pure scientific research (theoretical ) e.g.
Einstein
Development of Teflon
Explaining why there are seasons,
astronomical observations, eclipses,
Explaining diseases
Explaining what motivates employees
Why economy cycles, inflation
Developing new elements
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Fundamental research
Process of fundamental research
Collect data
Use sampling methods
Using longitudinal or transverse research

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Fundamental research
• 1. The fundamental research forms the basis for applied
research as it provides new information and more
opportunities for further research. In simple and brief
terms, basic research: e.g. new elements, nanoparticles
2. Searches for generalized ideas and information
Example: Development of Teflon: Initially no application
• Astronomy: study of black holes. Application?
• Anthopological research: study habits, social structures of
tribes
• Studying Handwriting of people, noting down details
• 3. Utilizes basic processes and sampling methods
4. Explains the general reasons behind events and
occurrences
5. Research and extracts as much data as possible, use
of data may not be important
Talks and states in technical language and terminology
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Applied Research

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Applied Research
• 1. Applied research complements the basic research and
offers immediate solutions and answers to a certain issue
or question..
• Its goal is to find real-world solutions to business
problems by pointing the business in the right
direction
• 2. It studies a certain issue or case with a specific aim.
• How to amplify sound? How to generate light (light Bulb by
Thomas Edison)
How to motivate employees?
• It studies any variable or data that could make a difference
It aims to propose any possible change
It works to rectify the wrong facts. Earth goes around the
Sun, not the other way around.
• The case study method and experimental research are
the parts of applied research
It uses simple and common language. Why?
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Applied research
R & D of products
Action research
Action research is a way to learn about things
that happen in everyday life and nature. .
It can improve hiring.
It improves work and policy.
It identifies workplace skill gaps.

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Applied vs Basic research

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Qualitative Research
Aims to gather and analyze non-numerical data
Qualitative research is theory-based. E.g. finding
peoples tastes. Customer preferences.
It is based on descriptions and describes an issue
by referring to previous studies, concepts, and
ideas
Purpose:
to gain an understanding of individuals' social
reality, understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and
motivation.
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Qualitative research
• qualitative research include the following
methods:
Focus groups
One-to-one interview,
• surveys,
Case studies

44
Qualitative research
Examples
Psychological researches: explaining our
mental processes
Philosophic topics: what is God? What is
purpose of life?
What is more important: profits or
sustainance?

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Qualitative research
Qualitative methodologies

46
Qualitative Research

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Quantitative research
Quantitative research is a
systematic and
structured approach to studying phenomena
that involves the collection of measurable data
and the application of statistical,
mathematical, or computational techniques
for analysis.
Collecting & analyzing numerical data
The results of quantitative research could be
measured and replicated,

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Quantitative research
Examples of quantitative data:
 Revenue in dollars.
 Weight in kilograms or pounds.
 Age in months or years.
 Distance in miles or kilometers.
 Time in days or weeks, hours, minutes, seconds
 Experiment results.
 Website conversion rates.
 Website page load speed.
 Frequency

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Quantitative Research

Purpose:
to find patterns and averages,
Predictions: Monsoon rains, prices,
populations
test causal relationships,
and generalize results

50
Quantitative research
Examples:
Risk of mobile towers,
% increase in cancer cases due to mobile
towers
Pollution measurements, problems related to
salary and wages. What is a fair wage?
Research in Physics and chemistry

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Quantitative research
Applications:
Quantitative research is widely used
in psychology, economics, demography,
sociology, marketing, community health,
health & human development, gender
studies, and political science; and less
frequently in anthropology and history.

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Quantitative Research: Characteristics

53
Quantitative Vs. Qualitative
Q Vs Q

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Exploratory research
Exploratory research
Exploratory research is defined as a research
used to investigate a problem which is not
clearly defined. It is conducted to have a
better understanding of the existing
research problem, but may not provide
conclusive results.
Finding causes but not necessary solutions

55
Exploratory research

56
Exploratory research examples

57
Exploratory research
 Role: Questions that are aimed at understanding the role of
a certain group of factors has over the behaviour of our
system or over a part of it.
 Prediction: Questions that are aimed at understanding the
factors that will allow us to model certain responses to our
system.
 Differentiation: Questions that are aimed at identifying
which responses are the most different according to certain
known factors.
 Characterization: Questions that are aimed at
understanding the set of factors that help characterize our
experimental groups more accurately.
 Thresholds: Questions that are aimed at understanding the
most relevant threshold values in certain processes
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Exploratory research
Exploratory research aims to examine and analyze a
certain research question
Exploratory research questions are designed to help you
understand more about a particular topic of interest.
(e.g. Are nano particles really useful? Is Hydrogen really
the fuel for future?) or topic in detail.
•A study into the role of social networking sites as an
effective marketing communication channel. May not
have any conclusion.
•An investigation into the ways of improvement of
quality of customer services within hospitality sector in
London

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Action Research
Action research:
•This type of research is based on analyzing,
evaluating, and investigating organizational and
institutional methods. It examines it to see if it needs
any improvement and optimize the methods for better
and improved results. No new theory.
•Are our educational methods generate employment?
Structured homework protocols for increasing
student achievement
Can music be used to stimulate creative writing.
Effect ofmusic on spiritual well being, calming effect

60
Experimental research
What is Experimental Research?
Experimental research is a study conducted
with a scientific approach using two sets of
variables. The first set acts as a constant,
which you use to measure the differences of
the second set. Quantitative research
methods, for example, are experimental.
Sales is proportional to prices
Advertising improves market share.
Inflation is directly proportional to deficit
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Experimental Research
Examples: What is the effect of packaging on
sales?
Testing new medicine: Two groups: new
Medicine & Placebo
Cognitive Performance under the influence of
caffeine
 How does Aerodynamics influence the
vehicle Fuel Efficiency?

62
Experimental research
Experimental research:
Experiment can be defined as the systematic
study in which a researcher controls of
manipulates one or more independent
(experiment) variables to test a hypothesis
about the independent variable.
Independent variables are manipulated or
controlled by researcher.
Dependent variables are those on which
researcher has little or no control.
63
Experimental research
Experimental research is a form of
comparative analysis in which you study two
or more variables and observe a group under
a certain condition or groups experiencing
different conditions. By assessing the results
of this type of study, you can determine
correlations between the variables applied
and their effects on each group. Experimental
research uses the scientific method to find
preferable ways of accomplishing a task for
providing a service.
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Experimental research

65
Experimantal research
Advantages of using experimental
research
Experimental research provides you with
more information when making professional
decisions, which might allow you to complete
better and more profitable actions.

66
Descriptive research
Descriptive research aims to accurately and
systematically describe a population, situation
or phenomenon. It can answer what, where,
when and how questions, but not why
questions.
Examples: Understand fashion trends, studying
placement record of college
Do customers of company X prefer product X
or product Y?
What are the most popular online news
sources
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Descriptive research
Descriptive research is an appropriate choice
when the research aim is to identify
characteristics, frequencies, trends, and
categories.
Descriptive research methods:
Surveys
Observations
Case studies

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Descriptive research

69
Qualities of Good Research
1. . Good research is anchored on a sound
research question. a good research question is:
F – feasible: cure for cance lies in genetic modification
I – interesting
N – novel
E – ethical
R – relevant
Good research uses relevant, empirical data and
proper data analysis methods.
Good research is replicable, reproducible, and
transparent.

70
Qualities of good research
Good research acknowledges its limitations
and provides suggestions for future research
Good research has external validity, ts
results or findings can be applied to the real
world

Example: Michelson Morley experiments to

measure speed of light

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Unit 2:Researc Process, Design &
Hypothesis
Research process
Research design
Hypothesis testing

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Unit 2:Research process - Steps
Flow chart

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Research Process
Flow Chart: feed forward, and feedback to
improve research problem, research design

74
Formulating Research Problem
Why define? Importance
What is Research Problem?
What is RP about?
Pre-requisites
How? Steps.
Sources of Research Problems
Broad Fields, Examples of topics


75
Formulating Research Problem
Why: Importance of formulating a research
problem:
-must know destination before starting a
journey, not only city, specific area within city,
the street, the building, the house
-foundation of all future work
-further steps depend on definition of problem
-methods of solution, data collection, research
design
-financial planning depends on it
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Formulating Research Problem
What is a research problem:
-Any question you want to be answered
-any assumptions, practices you want to
challenge
-any difficulties you want to be eased,
simplified
Deficiencies: Areas in which you are dis-
satisfied about the level of knowledge, which
does not answer all questions

77
Defining research problem
A research problem is a statement about:
What:
1. an area of concern: employee turnover
2. a condition to be improved: economic
conditions
3. a difficulty to be eliminated: In AI how to
eliminate dangers of AI
4. or a troubling question: are managers
born or made?

78
Research Problem
Pre requisites:
1. Interest
2. Gap analysis: do due diligence: real time
measurements
3. Domain knowledge: finance,
Clear, unambiguous, specific, should define
scope of work
Time required to select and define research
problem : :

79
Research Problem
What do you need to learn about the problem?
1. Learn more about the problem: Research
Next, you have to find out what is already known
about the problem, and pinpoint the exact aspect
that your research will address.
2. Learn more about Context and background
Who does the problem affect? E.g. Employee moral
Is it a newly-discovered problem, or a well-
established one? Many production problems come
up suddenly, poor materials, change in suppliers
What research has already been done?
80
Research Problem
How: Broad to Specific in at least 3 steps
Step 1: Select field
Examples:
Industrial Inter-relationships
Educational policies
Pollution
Global warming
Automatic vehicles

81
Research Problem
Step 2: Identify research problem more
specifically
A research problem is a specific issue or gap
in existing knowledge that you aim to address
What is the reason for inflation?
What really motivates employees?
Step 3: More Specific:
Examples: Effect of Improving employee
morale on industrial strikes.

82
Research problem
Step 3: Formulate research questions
Should be specific
Examples:
What effect does daily use of Facebook have
on the attention span of 12- to 16-year-olds?
How do the India and the US compare in
health outcomes among low-income people
with chronic illnesses?

83
Steps in formulating research
problem
How:
Step 1: identify a broad area of interest: e.g.
music, management, employee welfare,
public health
Step2: dissect the area into sub-areas

84
Formulating Research Problem
From Where: Sources of problems:
In Science & Engineering: materials,
processes, phenomenon, technology
In Humanities/Business management: 4P’s
People, Problems, Programmes,
Phenomena

85
Formulating Research Problem
Sources of problems: Examples

86
Research Problem
Examples of practical research problems
Voter turnout in Pune has been decreasing, in
contrast to the rest of the country.
The HR department of a local chain of restaurants has
a high staff turnover rate in summer months
An NGO, a non-profit organization faces a funding gap
that means some of its programs will have to be cut
The effects of long-term Vitamin D deficiency on
cardiovascular health are not well understood
The relationship between gender, race, and income
inequality has yet to be closely studied in the context
of the post Modi economy
87
Literature Review
Slide 105 onwords

88
Research Process: Hypothesis
Hypothesis: not compulsory
By formulating hypothesis you are taking specific
position: Employee satisfaction is the result of
interpersonal relations in a work place.
Specific, related to the subject
It guides researcher, researcher does not stray,
focus
It indicates the type of data to be collected
It suggests methods of data analysis to be used
How to select hypothesis: Discuss with colleagues
Trends seen in other papers, your own judgment
89
BR: Function & Role In Decision

90
Role of BRM in Decision making
Provide decision makers with
Reliable, relevant information, data
market trends, patterns, Options
So that they can make correct, educated
decisions based on facts than on hunch.

91
Research Design
Research design: conceptual structure within
which research would be conducted. framework
of research methods and techniques
preparation of the research design:
1. the means of obtaining the information
2. the availability and skills of the researcher
3. Process Sequence
the time available for research, time table
4. cost factor relating to research, i.e., the
finance available
92
Sampling Design
Project: finding consumer preferences
Why sampling: Not possible, practical to
interview, contact all consumers
Representative samples
Types of sampling:
Simple random
Systematic
Stratified
Quota

93
Data Collection
Methods:
Observation
Interviews: personal, by email
Questionnaires
experimentation

94
Formulating research problem
Examples: Some hot topics:
1. Managing technology & innovation
2. Resources management & sustainable
development
3. Social entrepreneurship: Papad
manufacturing
4. Corporate responsibility, ethics &
accountability
5. Accounting & finance
6. Teams in organizations
7. Strategic human resource management
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Formulating research problem
Examples: Some hot topics
Measuring and accessing the causal relationship
between corporate financial performance and
corporate social responsibility
How the success stories of female CEOs have
transformed the dimensions of businesses around the
world?
The concept of modern workplace v/s remote
working culture
Do organizations require to focus on separating
management from leadership to achieve effective
corporate strategies?
96
Formulating research problem
Examples: Related Topics:
Psychology, Stress management, Wellness,
Health care and treatment, Health and wellness,
Behavioral science, Interpersonal communication,
Creativity, Remote work, Pricing strategy,
Consumer behavior, Customer strategy, Marketing,
Brand management, Product management,
Project management, Organizational change,
Organizational decision making,
Organizational culture, Talent management,
Personnel policies, Developing
employees, Organizational transformation, Human
resource management, Customer experience,
97
Formulating research problem
More Examples: Crisis communication, Motivating
people, Leadership styles, Leadership
qualities, Leadership and managing
people, Innovation, Finance and investing, Start-
ups, Managing people, Entrepreneurial business
strategy, Entrepreneurship, Society and business
relations, Social movements, Social and global
issues, Marginalized groups, Business and
society, Information management, Analytics and
data science, AI and machine learning, Technology
and analytics, Growth strategy

98
Formulating research problem
Justification: Presentation: finalization
 Research topic 1: Example
What Drives High Penetration Rates Of Social
Media? A Qualitative Comparative Analysis
Across Countries

99
Formulation of research
problem
Justification: Presentation: finalization
Purpose – This study examines the drivers of high
social media penetration rates (SMP) across
countries by considering the concurrent causation of
cultural and socio-economic conditions.
Method – Ninety-four countries across continents
were analyzed using the set-theoretic
configurational approach fuzzy set Qualitative
Comparative Analysis (fsQCA 3.0). Findings – The
results reveal that adult literacy rate is necessary,
and four causal combinations for high social media
penetration rates were identified.
100
Formulating research problem
Finalization: Justification: Presentation
Research Topic 2: Example
The Role of Entrepreneurship Education on Student
Entrepreneurial Intentions: Mediating Effect of Attitude,
Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control
Purpose – The effect of entrepreneurship education (EE) in
universities has been recognized as one of the important
factors that help students to understand and foster an
entrepreneurial mind set. Hence, this study examined EE’s
role in entrepreneurial intentions and its antecedents
Method – A cross-sectional survey was conducted with a
sample size of 335 regular undergraduate graduating
classes of 2018 students who had taken the
entrepreneurship course in four universities
101
Formulating Research problem
Method: Questionaires
Findings – The results showed that EE
positively and significantly influences
entrepreneurial intentions
Limitations – The present study focused on
primary cross-sectional data collected from a
limited sample of regular undergraduate
students at only four universities
Contribution:

102
Literature review
1. What is LR
2. Why: Importance
3. Types of LR
4. What to look for
5. How: Process- Steps in LR
6. From Where: Sources of LR
7. Look at different sources

103
RM_Literature Search

104
Literature Survey
A literature review is an overview of the previously
published works on a topic
Literature review: what is the existing knowledge
a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic
overview of current knowledge
identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in
the existing research
Exhaustive : not just 99% but full, complete 100%
Sources: relevant Journals, books, conference
proceedings, govt. reports
Keyword search, trail of references
105
Literature Review
Definition:
Collecting & organizing all
information, methods, algorithms, existing
knowledge published so far on your research
topic,
analyzing critically and concisely earlier
research and literature related to a particular
research problem, and utilize them for their own
research purposes.
Example
106
LR
literature reviews are essential for:
(a) identifying what has been written on a subject or
(b) determining the extent to which a specific
research area reveals any interpretable trends or
patterns;
(c) aggregating empirical findings related to a
narrow research question to support evidence-based
practice; (d) generating new frameworks and
theories; and
(e) identifying topics or questions requiring more
investigation

107
LR
six generic steps involved in conducting a
review article
1. formulating the research question(s) &
objective(s)
2. searching the extant literature
3. screening for inclusion
4. assessing the quality of primary studies
5. extracting data, and
6. analyzing data

108
Literature Survey
Exhaustive : not 99% but 100%
Sources: relevant Journals, books,
conference proceedings, govt. reports
Keyword search, trail of references

109
Literature review
How LR will help?
Learn what all has been done so far
Can prevent you from duplicating your efforts
Find a gap
Position (how good or bad) your work in relation to
other researchers and theorists
Inform you about skills you require
Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for
your research
Evaluate the current state of research and
demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates
around your topic.
110
Literature review:

111
Literature review: Purpose
Why: Purpose
Enhance your own knowledge
Provides theoretical background to your
proposed work
Brings clarity and focus to your proposed
work
A requirement, Compulsory to do

112
LR
Final aim: to search for gap
Rationale for research
Show previous research is lacking something
Examples of gap:
1. There are many papers on pitch
measurement
But they don’t mention speed of
measurement

113
Literature Review: Purpose
 The purpose of a literature review is for you to take a
 1. critical look at the literature (facts and views) that
already exists in the area you are researching.
 A literature review is not a shopping list of everything
that exists, but a critical analysis that shows an
 2. evaluation of the existing literature and a
relationship between the different works.
 It demonstrates the 3. relevance of the research.
 The purpose of any literature review is to 4.
summarize and 5. synthesize the arguments and ideas
of existing knowledge in a particular field without
adding any new contributions

114
Literature Review: What is not

115
What is good LR?
A ‘good’ literature review….. A ‘poor’ literature review is…..

….. is a synthesis of available research …..an annotated bibliography

….. is a critical evaluation ….. confined to description
….. has appropriate breadth and depth ….. narrow and shallow
….. has clarity and conciseness ….. confusing and longwinded
….. uses rigorous and consistent ….. constructed in an arbitrary way
methods

116
Search Strategies
Important to get:
Accurate results
All results (Exhaustive)
Examples:
Topic: real time Extraction of accurate pitch
information from Indian Classical Music
Keywords: Indian Classical Music, Pitch,
pitch extraction, pitch determination, pitch
measurement, Hindustani Music, Carnatic
Music
117
Search Strategies
alternative keywords
Use a thesaurus to identify synonyms
Search for your concepts on a search engine
like Google Scholar, scanning the results for
alternative words and phrases.
Asterisk (*) as their truncation symbol: therap*
Wildcards are useful for finding British and
American spellings, for example: “behavio?r”
Adjacency search: physician ADJ3 relationship

118
Search Strategies
Search strategy techniques
Choosing search terms.
Searching with keywords.
Searching for exact phrases in quotation marks, e.g.
“Sustainable Development” But it limits searches
they must be found next to each other,
Using truncated and wildcard searches.
Searching with subject headings.
Using Boolean logic.
Citation searching.


119
Search Search
Citation searching
Citation searching is a method to find articles that
have been cited by other publications.
Use citation searching (or cited reference searching)
to:
find out whether articles have been cited by other
authors
find more recent papers on the same or similar subject
discover how a known idea or innovation has been
confirmed, applied, improved, extended, or corrected
help make your literature review more comprehensive.

120
RM_Literature Search

121
Search Strategies
You can use cited reference searching in:
Data base of journals and their ranking.
OvidSP databases
Google Scholar
Web of Science
Scopus
UGC Care List

122
Literature Review: Search strategies
 AND, OR and NOT
 You can use the search operators AND, OR and NOT to combine
search terms. These are the most commonly known and used boolean
operators.
 The operators AND and NOT limit the number of results from a
search. The operator OR does the opposite; it increases the number
of results.
 Examples:
 Endangered AND birds : searches for sources that have both these two
words.
 Endangered OR birds : searches for sources with the
word 'endangered' OR the word 'birds'. This search will produce more
results. (Tip: the operator “OR” can also be used to include different
spellings and translations or synonyms in the search).
 Endangered NOT birds : searches for the word ‘endangered’
and excludes the any sources that also has the word ‘birds’.
123
Literature review
• Example: Research topic: The Role of
Entrepreneurship Education on Student
Entrepreneurial Intentions.
1. Select some keyword supporting research topic
E.g. Entrepreneurship, training entrepreneurs,
student entrepreneurs, education, small scale
industry, business
Search for books
Papers in journals
Conferences on the topic
124
LR
Types of LR:
1. Narrative Reviews
2. Descriptive or Mapping Reviews
3. Scoping Reviews
4. Realist Reviews: theory-driven
interpretative reviews
5. Critical Reviews

125
Literature review: Types of LR
Literature review

126
127
Literature review
Steps in literature review

128
Literature review
Look for the following:
theories
Trends
Methods
Factors
Measurements (quantitative evaluation)
Relationships with other parameters

129
List of business management
journals
• Sources of LR:
• Sources of literature:
• Books
• Journals
• Conference proceedings
• Reports
1. Journal of management
• 2. Journal of business research
• 3. Journal of management studies
• 4. International journal of management research
• 5. Journal of international economics
• 6. Journal of international business studies

130
Literature review
• From:
• Advantages of Books: very detailed, thorough,
not limited by space, historical details, evolution
of the subject, written by experts, opinions of
various people
Disadvantages of books: not up-to-date, four to
five years gap, may be too broad in scope, require
a lot of time to read, can be boring, may loose
interest, can be expensive
How many books should you read? 10 to 15 (not
required to be read fully)
Sources of Books:
Book review indexes
Libraries
Internet
131
Literature review
Journals
Professional publications
Advantages: latest information ( still may be one
year old)
Very concentrated information, no extra material,
completely to the point.
Read many journals
Read reviews
Sources:
Citation indexes (e.g. Humanities Index, Business
Management Index, Engineering Index), impact
factor
Abstracts
132
Literature review
How to present literature review:
Author
Specific subject wise
Numbered index
Journal name
Date of publication
Main idea/algorithm

133
Literature review

134
Literature Search

135
Ethics in Research
Research ethics:
Set of rules that govern our expectation of
our own and others’ behaviour
Standard of conduct of researchers
Guidelines for responsible conduct of
research

136
Research Ethics

137
Ethics Objectives
to guard and protect human participants,
their dignity, rights and welfare
Protect privacy

138
Ethics Principles
Honesty
Integrity
Objectivity
Informed consent
Respect for person/respondent
Beneficence
Non maleficense

139
Ethics
Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and
procedures, and publication status. Do not
fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design,
data analysis, data interpretation, peer
review, personnel decisions, grant writing,
expert testimony, and other aspects of
research.
140
Ethics
Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with
sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and
action
Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and
critically examine your own work and the work of
your peers. Keep good records of research activities
Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open
to criticism and new ideas.
141
Ethics
Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of
intellectual property. Do not use unpublished
data, methods, or results without permission.
Give credit where credit is due. Never
plagiarize.
Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as
papers or grants submitted for publication,
personnel records, trade or military secrets,
and patient records.
142
Ethics
Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and
scholarship, not to advance just your own career.
Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students.
Promote their welfare and allow them to make
their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

143
Ethics
Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or
mitigate social harms through research,
public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or
students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity,
or other factors that are not related to their
scientific competence and integrity.

144
Ethics
Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional
competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole.
Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and
institutional and governmental policies.

145
Ethics
Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals
when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal
experiments.
Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human
subjects, minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits; respect human dignity,
privacy, and autonomy.
146
Ethics
What are research misconducts?
(a) Fabrication - making up data or results
and recording or reporting them.
(b) Falsification - manipulating research
materials, or changing or omitting data or
results such that the research is not accurately
represented in the research record.
(c) Plagiarism - the appropriation of another
person's ideas, processes, results, or words
without giving appropriate credit.

147
Plagiarism
Wrongful appropriation
Stealing and publication of others thoughts,
ideas, languages, and expressions
And representing them as your own work

148
Plagiarism

149
Plagiarism
Five types:
Copy paste
Idea
Word switch
Style
metaphar

150
Plagiarism

151
Plagiarism
Is using Chat GPT plagiarism?
No, ChatGPT doesn't plagiarize in the sense
that it doesn't copy information and pass it
along to you
because it learns from existing sources to
write the information it gives you, it may
borrow other writers' ideas without giving
them credit, which is a form of plagiarism.

152
Detecting Plagiarism

153
Detecting Plagiarism

154
Plagiarism
 Five words in a row is considered plagiarism
Identifies text elements in the file
It breaks text into sentences & phrases
It checks for similarities local base of
journals & publications
It checks big portions of text according to
some algorithm
It splits different search engines for
similarities and displays plagiarism report

155
Plagiarism
Plagiarism checker software
Turnitin, Quetext,
Grammarly, PlagScan
Copyleaks, Unicheck
iThenticate, Noplag
Plagium, Plagiarism detector
Scribbr, Copyscape

156
Plagiarism
The best way to avoid the misconduct of
plagiarism is by self-checking your
documents using plagiarism checker tools.
Any words or ideas that are not your own but
taken from another paper need to be cited
 Yes, universities can detect content
generated by Chat GPT.

157
Plagiarism
Tips on Avoiding Plagiarism
Learn the principles of good writing so you
have the necessary skills to express your
ideas with your own words. ...
Learn how to paraphrase a source with your
own words. ...
Learn how to cite sources properly. ...
Learn what plagiarism is and what it is not.
Increase your typing speed.

158
Plagiarism
How much plagiarism is acceptable?
15-20%
What percentage of plagiarism is acceptable
in university
General academic writing 15-20%
Essays 20-25%
Thesis and dissertations 5-15%
Published journals 5%-15%
Term Papers: 15 to 2o%

159
Plagiarism
Differences between plagiarism checkers
Data base size
Quality of scanning
Many free checkers only recognize exact
matches High-quality plagiarism checkers use
a process called “fingerprinting” to find non-
exact matches among paraphrased or altered
texts.

160
Plagiarism
What plagiarism checkers can’t identify:
Ideas and non-text plagiarism
Text from internal databases

161
Measurements & Scaling
Techniques
Research Methodology
Descriptive Topics Quantitative topics
1.Defining research 2.Measurements
problem
3. Literature review 4.Scaling
5.Identifying Variables 6.Hypothesis testing
7.Research design 8.Chi Square test
9.Selecting study design 10.Data collection &
processing
11. Research instrument 12.Sampling
13.Research proposal 14.Writing research
report

15.Data analysis 162

Measurements in research
1. Definition: what are measurements?
What should be measured? Physical
properties? Psychological properties?
2. Measurement Scales
3. Sources of error in measurements
4. Test of sound (good) measurements
5. Developing measurement tools

163
M&S
Research Data consists of variables like
price, income, population, and also
performance, knowledge, characters,
attitudes
Quantitative variables are numerical,
qualitative data must be converted into
numbers.

164
M&S
Measurement (Noun)
Measurement is the process of observing
and recording the observations that are
collected as part of research.

165
Measurement & scaling
Measurements: assigning numbers to a
phenomenon according to some rule, quantify
features of a physical object, length, height,
weight, money
Measurement is a process of mapping aspects of
a domain onto other aspects of a range according
to some rule of correspondence (x to y)
Judging (good) is also a form of measurement:
e.g. How well we like a song: on a scale of 5 or 10
Thus we measure objects as well as abstract
concepts (Likes, emotions)
166
Measurements
Units:
Measurement of physical properties can be
measured and expressed using units of
measurement, e.g. meters, seconds, Kg, with
great accuracy
Measurement of abstract concepts is more
difficult, and less accurate

167
M&S
A scale is a set of levels or numbers which
are used in a particular system of measuring
things or are used when comparing things.
An ordered reference standard: judging on a
scale of 1 to 10
Relative magnitude: they organized event
on a grand scale
Ratio of sizes of something and its
representation of it
E.g. maps
168
M&S
 Scale

169
Measurement data & scales
Measurement data and scales
1. Nominal data & scales
2. Ordinal data and scales
3. Interval data and scales
4. ratio data and scales
Each scale can be examined for statistical
significance, mathematical operations, use for
comparison, ranking

170
Scale

171
Measurement data and scales
Nominal data and scales:
Nominal data is Numerical in name only
E.g. numbers to football team members: only
identification.
 Nominal scales are used for labeling
variables, without any quantitative value.
No arithmetic, comparison is also not
possible
No quantitative value, no statistical
significance
172
Nominal Data & Scale

173
Measurement data and scales
Ordinal data: data which offer comparison but not
absolute value. (Order)
Example: Hardness: steel is harder than wood, wood
is harder than cotton. St > Wd > Cot
You can assign numbers to extent of hardness just for
comparison: Steel=10, Wood = 4, Cotton = 1
Use words like ‘happier than’, ‘preferred to’
Ordinal scale places events in order, provides a rank.
Rank 40 is not 4 times rank 10. No arithmetic
possible.
Statistical significance: only median possible.
Comparison is possible: > , < .
174
M&S
With ordinal scales, the order of the values is
what’s important and significant, but the
differences between each one is not really
known. #4 is better than a #3 or #2, but we
don’t know–and cannot quantify–
how much better it is


175
M&S
Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-
numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness,
discomfort, etc

176
Measurement data and scales
Interval data and scale: Interval” itself
means “space in between”
both the order and the exact differences
between the values.

177
Measurements
Interval data examples:

178
M&S
interval scales not only tell us about order,
but also about the value between each item.
Example: temperature 200 C, 400 C,
However No absolute zero, only an arbitrary
zero
40 0 C is not twice a hot as 200 C
Ratio of two temperatures is meaningless.
Statistical significance: mean and Std Dev
possible

179
M&S
problem with interval scales: they don’t have a
“true zero.” For example, there is no such
thing as “no temperature,
In interval scales, zero doesn’t mean the
absence of value, but is actually another
number used on the scale, like 0 degrees
celsius
Negative numbers also have meaning.
Without a true zero, it is impossible to compute
ratios. With interval data, we can add and
subtract, but cannot multiply or divide.
180
Measurement data and scales
Ratio scale:
Absolute zero exists, i.e. No weight exists.
In money zero Rupee equals zero dollar
equals zero euro. Zero money means No
meoney
Represent actual amount of variables, e.g.
weight, height
All mathematical, statistical operations
possible
Most precise scale
181
Measurements


182
Ratio data and scale
they tell us about the order, they tell us the
exact value between units, AND they also
have an absolute zero–which allows for a wide
range of both descriptive and inferential
statistics to be applied.
variables can be meaningfully added,
subtracted, multiplied, divided (ratios). Central
tendency can be measured by mode, median, or
mean; measures of dispersion, such as
standard deviation and coefficient of variation
can also be calculated from ratio scales
183
M&S
Summary of data and scale types:

184
M&S
Exercise in Ratio data and scale
Measure these lines A and B
Draw a line equal to sum A + B
 difference A - B
Find ratio of lengths A/B
Draw a line twice of B
Draw a line half of A

185
Measurement data and scales
•Measurement should be precise and unambiguous
•researcher must be aware about the sources of
error
•Sources of error in measurements. Magnitude of
Errors must be informed by the researcher.
•1. Instrument
•2. Measurer
•3. Respondent (e.g. in an interview)
•4. Situation (some one else affecting respondent)
186
Measurement of errors
Quantification of error
Absolute error = a – a0
Relative error = (a – a0)/a0
Percentage error = ((a –a0)/a0)x100
RMS Error

187
Measurement Errors

188
Measurement errors
Accuracy & Precision
Accuracy: The accuracy of a measurement is
a measure of how close the measured value is
to the true value of the quantity.
Precision: Precision refers to the closeness
of two or more measurements to each other.
Precision tells us, to what resolution or limit
the quantity is measured.

189
Measurement errors

190
Measurement Errors
Methods of Minimizing Errors
Proper calibration of instruments, apparatus and
applying corrections. What is calibration?
Improve experimentation techniques: Select Correct
range
Before starting any experiments, adjust the
instrument to zero.
Take the measurements carefully.
The surrounding environment where the experiment
is being carried out can also cause an error.
(Humidity, Temperature, Atmospheric Pressure, dark
or bright)
191
Measurement errors
Random & systematic errors
 Random and systematic error are two types of
measurement error. Random error is a chance
difference between the observed and true
values of something (e.g., a researcher
misreading a weighing scale records an in
correct measurement).
Random error affects your measurements in
unpredictable ways: your measurements are
equally likely to be higher or lower than the
true values.
192
Measurement errors
 errors

193
M&S
Systematic error is a consistent or
proportional difference between the observed
and true values of something (e.g., a
miscalibrated scale consistently registers
weights as higher than they actually are).

194
Measurement errors

195
Test of Sound measurements
1. Validity
2. Reliability
3. Practicability
4. Sensitivity: ability of a measuring
instrument to measure the meaningful
difference in the responses obtained from the
subjects included in the study.

196
M&S
Validity

197
Test of sound measurement
Validity: Measurement validity concerns the
extent to which an instrument measures what
it is intended to measure.
Validity places an emphasis on the objectives
of a test and the ability to make inferences
from test scores or measurements.
Suitable test for heart condition: Blood test or
ECG?
Suppose we want to weigh small weight of
gold, it will be invalid to use bathroom
weighing machine.
198
M&S

199
Measurements
Validity:The question of validity should not be: "Is an
instrument valid?" It is more accurately: "How valid is it
for a given purpose?“
Validity is not an inherent property of an instrument.
Measuring a parameter which does not directly
correlate with the phenomenon of interest will be
invalid. E.g. if want to measure heart health of person,
it will valid to take ECG, but may not be valid to do
blood test.
Unfortunately, for the measurement of more abstract
variables, such as intelligence, measurement scales are
not so obviously related to the variable of interest, and
validity is harder to verify.
200
Measurements
Validity
For instance, a test of gross motor skills should
not contain items that assess language skills,
nor should it be influenced by the patient's
anxiety level or ability to read.
For the measurement of more abstract
variables, such as intelligence, measurement
scales are not so obviously related to the
variable of interest, and validity is harder to
verify.
201
M&S

202
Measurements
• Reliability of a measurement: Reliability has to do
with the accuracy and precision of a measurement
procedure. Can we trust the results?
A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides
consistent results. Reliability: degree of stability
by comparing the results of repeated measurements.
• Reliability can be improved in the following two
ways:
1. By standardising the conditions under which the
measurement take: e.g. temp, pressure.
2. By following carefully designed directions for
measurement.
3. by using trained and motivated persons to
conduct the research
203
Measurements
Practicality: The practicality characteristic of a
measuring instrument can be judged in terms of
economy and convenience.
Instrument should be economical, and convenient
to use. (Killing a fly (Mashi) using a sledge
hammer (Hathoda))
A trade-off is needed between the ideal research
project and that which the budget can afford. For
measuring body temperature, a simple mercury
thermometer is enough, no need for a precise,
industrial grade thermometer e.g. with PT 100.
204
Developing Measuring tools
Developing measuring tools (procedure):
there may not be a ready made instruments for
measuring the variable of interest:
Suppose you want to measure quality of milk.
four-stage process of developing tools:
(a) Concept development: what is purity? Several
parameters: fat content, particles, colour,
nutritional value (vitamins & minerals), even
quantity in a pouch
(b) Specification of concept dimensions:
measure of purity , fat content (full fat milk = 6%)
205
M&S
Measuring tools
(c) Selection of indicators:
Indicators help in measuring the elements of
a concept such as knowledge, opinion,
choices, expectations and feelings of
respondents. Examples of indicators are
variables.
E.g. effectiveness of a medicine (concept):
indicator is a variable: e.g. mortality rate,
recurrence of disease, number of patients
206
Developing measuring tools
(d) Formation of index. combining the
various indicators into an index, e.g. a scale
of 1 to 10. e.g. inflation is an index. E.g. Price
Index = ∑P1Q0/∑P0Q0
(weighted sum of prices)

207
Milk Testing
quantity – measured in volume or weight;
organoleptic characteristics – appearance,
taste and smell;
compositional characteristics – especially fat,
solid and protein contents;
physical and chemical characteristics;
hygienic characteristics – hygienic
conditions, cleanliness and quality;
adulteration – with Water

208
Developing measurement system
Parameter: quality of MIT WPU’s MBA
Program

209
Scale
A measurement scale refers to a classification
that defines the nature of information within
the numerals assigned to variables

210
Scales: Ranking techniques
Scaling: Scale: scale is a set of numbers that help to
measure or quantify objects, a series of marks or
points at known intervals
‘Scaling’ is applied to the procedures for attempting to
determine quantitative measures of subjective
abstract concepts. Scale: quantity: min, max,
divisions, resolution
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers
to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other
abstract concepts
scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point,
and the lowest point along with several intermediate
points between these two extreme points.
211
Scaling techniques
Scaling
techniques:
for non
Physical
Parameters
Subjective
Abstract
Degrees of
opinions
212
Scales of measurements
Scales of measurement is how variables are
defined and categorised.
A scale is a set of levels or numbers or
units which are used in a particular
system of measuring things or are used
when comparing things.

213
Scales
Scaling Techniques:
1.Rating Scale: qualitative description of a
limited number of aspects of a thing or of
traits of a person
“above average, average, below average”
“excellent—good—average—below average—
poor”
always—often—occasionally—rarely—never

214
Scaling techniques
Itemised (placed on a list)rating scales:
With an itemised scale, respondents are
provided with a scale having numbers and/or
brief descriptions associated with each
category and are asked to select one of the
limited number of categories, ordered in
terms of scale position, that best describes
the product, brand, company or product

215
Scales
Music Scales: Solfa Symbols
Indian: Just Intonation scale
Western: equi - tempered scale
Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa
Sa re Re ga Ga Ma ma P dha Dha ni Ni Sa
Carnatic Western Hindustani

Sa Do Sa

Ri Re Re

Ga Mi Ga

Ma Fa Ma

Pa So Pa

Dha La Dha
216
Graphic scale
2. Graphic scale/Itemised Verbal/Numeric

217
Scale
Graphic scale: various points are usually
put along the line to form a continuum and
the rater indicates his/her rating by simply
making a mark (such as ü) at the appropriate
point

218
Scales
3. Semantic : 7-Point bipolar semantic scale:

219
Scales
4. Stapel
Unipolar

220
Scales
Ranking scales: respondents under this
method directly compare two or more objects
and make choices among them.
Method of paired comparisons:
when there are more than two stimuli to
judge, the number of judgements required in
a paired comparison is given by the formula:
nC2 = n!/2!(n-2)!

221
Time scales
A timescale is “the characteristic spatio-temporal
envelope within which a process happens”
Representations of time in this research are classified into
1) Time-interval, 2) Time-duration, 3) Time-point, and 4)
Time-dimension. Time-scale refers the size of temporal
intervals either built subjectively or objectively for
measuring geographic processes or events
Definitions: An agreed upon system for keeping time. All
time scales use a frequency source to define the length of
the second, which is the standard unit of time interval.
Seconds are then counted to measure longer units of time
interval, such as minutes, hours, or days. SI Unit of time
All researh papers should use SI units.

222
Time scales
Time scale: Wall Clock : hr, minutes, seconds
Stop watch: seconds, fractions of a sec
Sports clock
Scientific clock
Atomic clock
Calendar: days & years

223
Time measurement
Instruments for time measurement

224
Scale Development
At this stage, the researcher develops a good
understanding of the topic he/she wants
related to his research study

225
Scale Development
1. Making a judgement about some
characteristic of an individual and then placing
him/her directly on a scale that has been
defined in terms of that characteristic. E.g.
Health Conciousness
2. Constructing questionnaires in such a
way that the score of individual’s responses
assigns him a place on a scale
3. Deciding : Number of levels (Division), Type
of scale
226
Scale development
Exercise
Develop a 3 point descriptive, ranking scale
for Attentiveness
Convert it into a 5 point Semantic scale.
Develop a scale for ranking competitiveness
of players
Develop a plan to check health awareness of
students in our class, display on a suitable
scale.

227
Scales Descriptie
The itemized rating scale (also known as numerical
scale) presents a series of statements from which a
respondent selects one as best reflecting his evaluation
He is almost always involved in some friction with a
fellow worker.
He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow
workers.
He sometimes gets involved in friction.
He infrequently becomes involved in friction with
others.
He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow
workers
228
Exercise
E.g. you are studying health awareness: what
data will you collect: Dietary habits, No. of
vegetarians, Non Veg eaters, Vegans, Dairy,
Physical exercise, Ket0 Diet,

229
Variables in research
• Examples: religion, income, occupation,
consumption, temperature, humidity,
language, food, fashion, preferences,
prices, supplies, demand
Importance:
• basic units of the information studied
and interpreted in research studies.
• Variables help to make sense of how things
relate to each other in a descriptive study or
what has happened in an experiment.
230
Types of Variables in research
Research is proposing algorithms to solve
problems and backing your algorithm with data.
And Data is collected under various heads called
‘Variables’
A variable is any kind of attribute or
characteristic that you are trying to measure,
manipulate and control
E.g. you are studying health awareness: what
data will you collect: Dietary habits, No. of
vegetarians, Non Veg eaters, Vegans, Dairy,
Physical exercise, Ket0 Diet,
231
Variables in research
In software, Variables are containers for
storing data values

232
Variables in research
Concepts & Variables: Examples

233
Variables measure concepts
 Concepts  Indicators  variables
Concept Indicators Variables
Richness 1. Assets 1. Income per
2. Income year,
2. House area
Academic 1. Merit List 1. Marks
achievement
Effectiveness of 1. Changes in 1. No of
a health mortality ratio patients
program 2. Expenses on
medicines

234
Variables in research
Variable classification

235
Variables in research
Types of variables

236
Variables in research
Independent & dependent variables

237
Variables
Independent Dependent variables
DefinitionA variable that stands alone and
isn't changed by other variables or factors
that are measured A variable that relies on
and can be changed by other factors that are
measured ExampleAge: Other variables such
as where someone lives, what they eat or how
much they exercise are not going to change
their age A grade someone gets on an exam
depends on factors such as how much sleep
they got and how long they studied
238
Variables
Quantitative variables Qualitative
variables Definition Data sets that involve
numbers or amounts
Non-numerical values or groupings
ExamplesHeight, distance or number of
items Eye color or dog breed

239
Variables
Intervening variables Moderating
variables Definition A theoretical variable
used to explain a cause or connection
between other study variables A variable that
changes the relationship between dependent
and independent variables by strengthening
or weakening the intervening variable's effect

240
Variables in research
Intervening (also called cofounding)variables

Smoking  Nicotine  Cancer

 Intervening
 variable
Other/extraneous variables: age of smoker,
how many cigarettes a day etc.

241
Variables in research
Extraneous variables: other variables

242
Variables in research
Endogenous/exogenous variables
T = b + tY
T (total tax collected) is endogenous variable,
is generated from the model
t = tax rate is exogenous variable, imposed
on the model from outside the model

Y = C + I0 + G

243
Variables in research
Active/attribute

244
Variables in research
Misc.

245
Researcher created variables
Possible Research Subject:
Does teaching entrepreneurship help
students become better entrepreneurs?
For this subject how can you support your
theory by data? What variables you will
select?

246
Research Design

247
Unit 2: Research Design
Flow Chart: feed forward, and feedback to
improve research problem, research design

248
Research Design
Research Design
What is Research Design
Why (Need)for Research Design
Features of a Good Design
Concepts Relating to Research Design
Types Different Research Designs
Principles of Experimental Designs
Conclusion

249
Research Design
Research design refers to plan, structure or
strategy that guides a research project from
its conception to its final analysis of data
Plan
Strategy/approach
Time
Budget

250
Research Design (Chat GPT)
Slide 2:

Definition: Research design is a framework

for conducting a study that includes an
approach to data collection and analysis. It
defines the objectives of the study, outlines
the methods to be used, and explains the type
of data to be collected.

251
Research Design

252
Research Design: Data Collection

253
Research Design: what
A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for Collection and analysis of
data to combine
relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure
Detailed, time bound steps.
Design: planning, organizing
conceptual structure within which
research is done
blueprint
254
RD: What
The word blueprint originated in the mid-
nineteenth century when engineering
drawings were printed on blue paper with
white lines . Photo-printing process
Contact printing, Paper coated with
photosensitive ammonium ferric citrate.

255
RD: What
What sources and types of information
What approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data
What are the time table and cost budgets
(a) Formulate a clear statement of the research
problem;
(b) Define procedures and techniques to be
used for gathering information; (c) what
population to be studied;
and (d) what methods to be used in processing
and analyzing data
256
Research Design:
What is RD?
Planning for funds:
Do you have funds? Why do you need funds?
How Long is the procedure to arrange funds?
Do you need special instruments? Are they
available?
Do you need to design your own instruments?
How long will it take to arrange instruments?
Prepare a proposal

257
Research Design
Need?
Why do you need a detailed plan?
1. Research is time bound.
2. Long duration
3. Complex work
4. Results may go wrong: time required for
corrective actions, changes of approach.


258
RD features
Features of Research Design:
flexible,
appropriate,
efficient,
Economical
minimises bias and maximises the reliability
of the data
small experimental error

259
RD

260
RD
Types of research design
1.Descriptive research
• description of the state of affairs as it exists
• No control over variables, answers questions
who, what, when, where, and how, but not
why.
• Examples: preferences, frequency of
shopping, consumption patterns

261
RD
2. Analytical or Causal research:
use facts or information already available,
and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the
material. Going a step ahead 0f descriptive
research. Answers to why. Well structured.
Ex.: explain poverty in India

262
RD
3. Applied:
finding a solution for an immediate problem
Ex.: problems in society, business, industry,
science, engineering

4. Fundamental research:
Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake
Ex. Astronomical research

263
RD
5. Quantitative research:
measurement of quantity or amount applicable
to phenomena that can be expressed in terms
of quantity.

6. Qualitative research:
phenomena relating to or involving quality or
kind
Ex. Motivation, behaviour

264
RD
Research Design

265
RD
7. Conceptual
related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
Philosophic research, morality
8. Empirical or experimental:
relies on experience or observation alone,
data based
verifiable, also called experimental research

266
RD
9. Longitudinal: following a linear time, carried on
over, several time-periods, survey of same population
over a period of time, demographic research
10. Diagnostic research:
causes of things or events, e.g. medicine research
11. Exploratory:
development of hypotheses rather than their testing
12. Historical research:
Based on historical sources like documents, remains,
etc. to study events or ideas of the past

267
RD
13. Operations research:
decision oriented research, quantitative basis for
decisions regarding operations under their
control, e.g. how to assign work to employees
14. Simulation research:
Based on simulation

15. Conclusive
17. Cross Sectional: Used in business &
marketing research.
268
RD
Cross sectional research:
Collecting samples of population at only one
point of time. Various segments of population
are sampled so that relationships among the
variables may be investigated by cross
tabulation. Also called sample survey.

269
RD
Research approaches:
1.Quantitative approach: generation of data in
quantitative form, inferential, deductive
2. Qualitative approach: subjective assessment,
opinions, behaviour

270
Research Design

271
The important features of a
research design
 A plan

Specify the sources & types of

information relevant to the research
problem
 A strategy

Which approach will be used for

gathering and analyzing the data
 The time and budgets

Most studies are done under these two

constraints
272/42
Research design
Types of research design /research approach
depends on types of research. See slides 32
to 53 for types of research.

273
Research Design: Questions
Do you have skills & knowledge required?
List skills & knowledge required.

Do you have full control over your work?

Extraneous variables that can affect your
work?

Are you protected from Breakdowns?

274
Research Design: Questions
Are you sure what experiments you have to do?
Preparation required for experiments.

Is your research

Descriptive? Case Studies? Surveys?
Diagnostic? Finding Causes for phenomenon?
Empirical? Experimental? Lab Experiments? Field
(Agri)
Theoretical?
Meta Analysis? Many studies on same topic.
275
Research Design: questions
Is research design different for different types of
research?

Research design for quantitative & qualitative

research can be different.
Main focus of qualitative research is to
understand, explore, discover, explain, clarify
preferences, practices, feelings, perceptions,
values, beliefs.
Qualitative research is based on deductive logic.
Quantitative research is based on inductive logic.
276
Research Design: questions
Have you checked feasibility of your idea?

Do you have the manpower, team, required

for the work?

277
Research design: characteristics
Quantitative research is based on
experimentation.

Qualitative research is flexible, non

sequential
Quantitative research is quite strict and
sequential.

278
Research Design
Research Design

279
Research Design (Chat GPT)
Slide 3:

Purpose of Research Design:

- To ensure that data is collected in an
effective and efficient manner
- To ensure that data collected is accurate
and reliable
- To identify any potential biases in the data
- To provide a basis for the interpretation of
the results
280
Research Design (Chat GPT)
Slide 4:

Types of Research Design:

- Descriptive Design
- Experimental Design
- Quasi-Experimental Design
- Correlational Design

281
Research Design (Chat GPT)
Slide 5:

Descriptive Design: It is used to describe a

phenomenon or event in order to gain an
understanding of it. It involves collecting data
on a phenomenon or event and then
analyzing it to gain an understanding of it.

282
Research Design (Chat GPT)
Slide 6:

Experimental Design: It is used to determine

cause and effect relationships between
variables. It involves testing a hypothesis by
manipulating one

283
Research Design (Chat GPT)
Slide 7:
Descriptive Research Design: Descriptive
research is used to describe characteristics of
a population or phenomenon being studied.

284
Research Design (Chat GPT)
Slide 9:
Summary: Research design is the blueprint of
a research project that guides the collection
and analysis of data. It is used to provide a
systematic approach to ensure that the
research question is answered objectively,
accurately, and effectively. There are three
types of research designs: exploratory,
descriptive, and causal.

285
Research Design (Chat GPT)
Slide 10:
Conclusion: Research design is an important
part of the research process. It provides the
framework for the entire project and helps
ensure that the research question is
answered accurately and effectively.



286
Unit 5: Syllabus

287
Hypothesis: Construction &
Testing
What is a Hypothesis?
If Entrepreneurship is your topic, you may start with the idea
that training students in entrepreneurship helps students in
becoming entrepreneurs.
Then your research will focus on proving this idea.
So, hypothesis is an idea, assertion, assumption, or
proposition about your topic of research, subject to
verification.

Hypothesis is a tentative proposition.

Its validity is not necessary established.


288
Hypothesis
• Importance: important step in formulating
research problem in quantitative research
• Has the ability to bring direction and focus to
research.
• Example: Suppose you generally feel tired.
. Several reasons are possible. But you may
study tiredness vs. lack of vitamin C, thus
better defining the scope of your study. Your
study can be: Higher doses of Vitamin C can
reduce tiredness.
289
Hypothesis necessary?
Is it necessary to start research with a hypothesis?
Is hypothesis compulsory?
No. But prevalent in epidemiological
(transmission and control of disease) research.
 Is it useful to start research with a hypothesis?

It can be. It can bring more clarity in your

thoughts.
It may help you to collect appropriate data to
prove your hypothesis.

290
Hypothesis
If you must start with a hypothesis, what should be
the form?
Simple, specific, clear.
E.g. Fuel consumption with new system > 25 Km/L
Erifiable Others can also verify if they want.
It should be one dimensional: one relationship at a
time.
E.g. medicine : cures cancer
Fuel efficiency: 25 L/km
Hypothesis should add to existing knowledge
It can be expresses in terms that are measurable
291
Hypothesis testing procedure
Step 1: Set null and alternate hypothesis
Step 2: determine the appropriate statistical test
Step 3: Set the level of significance
Step 4: Set the decision rule
Step 5: Collect the sample data
Step 6: Analyze the data
Step 7: Arrive at the statistical conclusion and business
interpretation

292
Hypothesis Testing
A null hypothesis is a type of statistical hypothesis
that proposes that no statistical significance exists in
a set of given observations e.g. the new system does
not give any better fuel efficiency.
 Researchers reject or disprove the null hypothesis
to set the stage for further experimentation or
research that explains the position of interest.
A scientific hypothesis is a statement of what the
researcher expects to find upon conducting a study.
A statistical hypothesis, however, is a statement of
what the statistician expects NOT to find. For this
reason it is called a NULL hypothesis.
293
Hypothesis testing
HT

294
Developing Null & Alternate Hypothesis
Three Guidelines:
1. Testing research hypothesis: You have
developed a new engine which is more
efficient, gives > 25 Km/L
A research hypothesis is worded opposite to
what you claim:
H0 ≤ 25
Ha > 25
Now, you will collect data to show that H0 can
be rejected.
295
Developing Hypothesis
2. Testing the validity of a claim: A
manufacturer claims average amount of milk in
pouch > 500 ml
If you are an inspector, your H 0: μ≥ 500
 & Ha: μ < 500
3. Testing in decision making situation: quality
control situation: Ball bearing avg. dia = 10 mm
H0: μ = 10
Ha: μ ≠ 10

296
Developing Hypothesis: Exercise

297
Developing Hypothesis: Exercise

298
Hypothesis testing: Exercise

299
Hypothesis testing
3 Step Process:

300
Hypothesis testing steps
Step 2: Determine appropriate statistical test
Statistical test: Calculating mean, median,
variance

Step 3: Level of significance is the probability

of making type 1 error when the null
hypothesis is true as an equality.

301
Hypothesis testing: errors
The null and alternate hypothesis are
competing statements about the population.
Either the null hypothesis is true or the
alternate, but not both.
i.e. testing procedure should lead to
acceptance of H0 if it is true and rejection of
H0 when Ha is true.
Because hypothesis tests are based on
sampling information there can be errors.

302
Hypothesis testing: errors

303
Type 1 & Type 2 Errors
Attendance Real Situation
Student present Student absent
Marked present No error Error Type 2
Marked absent Error Type 1 No error

304
Hypothesis testing: errors
Errors

305
Hypothesis testing: errors
Examples of errors:
Fuel consumption of new engine:
H0 : μ ≤ 25
Ha : μ > 25
Type 1 error: rejecting H0 when it is true, i.e.
researchers claiming new engine give more
average when it is not
Type 2 error: accepting H0 when it is not
true, i.e. new engine is better but you
conclude it is not.
306
Hypothesis testing: errors

307
Hypothesis testing errors

308
Hypothesis testing Level of Significance

309
Hypothesis testing
Setting level of significance: α
By selecting α, a person is controlling the
probability of making type 1 error
If cost of making type 1 error is high, lower
value of α
Hypothesis testing is also called significance
testing when only type 1 error is considered.

310
Hypothesis testing
Level of significance tells us how far, at the
most, the sample average can be from the
claimed population average.
There is a test statistic called z which tells us
high far (in terms of sample standard
deviation)

311
Hypothesis testing
Understanding level of significance
Court case: H0 : Accused is not guilty
In what situation will the judge declare the
accused guilty?

312
Hypothesis testing
Example:
A coffee manufacturer claims to pack, on an
average 3 kg of coffee in a tin, weight is
normally distributed, and σ = 0.18 kg. A govt.
inspector comes to determine this claim and
forms the following hypothesis:
H0: μ0 ≥ 3
Ha : μ0 < 3

313
Hypothesis test

314
Hypothesis testing example
He selects 36 tins of coffee and weighs the
contents.
The inspector carries out some measurements on
coffee samples. Results of his measurements are:
μs (sample) = 2.92 kg. Should he reject
company’s claim?
But he says: In my sample testing, If the
company is not meeting its weight specification
at μ = 3, then I am willing to take a 1% risk of
rejecting company’s claim (if correct).
His calculations are the following:
315
Hypothesis testing example(Contd.)
Test statistic, z = (μs – μ0)/(σ/ √36) = (2.92 –
3)/0.18/6
z = - 0.08/0.03 = -2.67
z for 1% = - 2.33
Alternately,
Look up % vs. z table for z = -2.67,
Area = 1 – 0.4962 = 0.0038

316
Hypothesis testing

317
Hypothesis testing

318
Hypothesis Testing Exercise: UpperTail

319
Hypothesis testing: Exercise two tailed test

320
Hypothesis testing

321
T test
A t test is a statistical test that is used to
compare the means of two groups. It is often
used in hypothesis testing to determine
whether a process or treatment actually has
an effect on the population of interest, or
whether two groups are different from one

322
T Test statistic t

323
T test
X are averages of the two groups
s = standard deviation (same for both
groups)
N are numbers of data values in each group.

324
T test data

325
Anova Test

326
Anova

327
Anova: Prices of pack of
biscuits
Delhi Mumbai Kolkata Chennai
22 19 18 21
22.5 19.5 17 20
21.5 19 18.5 21.5
22 20 17 20
22.5 19 18.5 21
21.5 21 17 20

328
Anova
Steps in carrying out Anova test:
1. Find mean of observation of each column, xi
2. Find mean of means of all columns, grand mean,
X
3. Find SSE, sum of squares within samples
4. Find SSC, sum of squares between samples
5 Calculate MSE = SSE/(n-k), n = total no. of
observations in all groups, k = no. of samples
6. calculate MSC = SSC/(k-1)
7. Calculate F = MSC/MSE
8. If F . Fu, reject H0.
329
330
Hypothesis
A null hypothesis is a type of statistical hypothesis
that proposes that no statistical significance exists in
a set of given observations e.g. the new system does
not give any better fuel efficiency.
 Researchers reject or disprove the null hypothesis
to set the stage for further experimentation or
research that explains the position of interest.
A scientific hypothesis is a statement of what the
researcher expects to find upon conducting a study.
A statistical hypothesis, however, is a statement of
what the statistician expects NOT to find. For this
reason it is called a NULL hypothesis.
331
Hypothesis
The null hypothesis is always stated in the
negative. This is because you have to be able
to prove something is indeed true.
Technically speaking, the word “hypothesis”
is a Greek word that means “an assumption
subject to verification”.
The null hypothesis is what we test with
statistics.

332
Hypothesis testing
HT

333
Hypothesis testing
Exercise

334
Hypothesis testing
The steps are as follows:
Assume for the moment that the null
hypothesis is true. ...
Determine how likely the sample relationship
would be if the null hypothesis were true.
If the sample relationship would be extremely
unlikely, then reject the null hypothesis in
favour of the alternative hypothesis.

335
Hypothesis testing
Exercise

336
Chi-square test
What Is a Chi-Square Test?
The Chi-Square test is a statistical procedure
for determining the difference between
observed and expected data.


337
Chi square test
Marks & Gender of Students
Maths Commerc Arts
e
Girl
Students
Boy Veg Non Veg
students
North
South
Soft drink preference (Mango, Orange) between students of
different subjects (Commerce, Arts):

.
338
Chi-square test
• chi-square test is an ideal choice for aiding in our
understanding and interpretation of the
connection between our two categorical variables
• The Chi-Square test estimates the size of
inconsistency between the expected results and
the actual results when the size of the sample
and the number of variables in the relationship is
mentioned.
It is used to calculate the difference between two
categorical variables, which are:
• As a result of chance or
• Because of the relationship
339
Chi square test
Consistency & mean:
Two batters scored following runs in 5
matches:
B1 : 19, 56, 98, 5, 100 : total 278, Avg. 278/5
= 55.6
B2: 46, 48, 55, 90, 39 : total: 278, Avg. 55.6

If you were the captain, which batter you will

like in your team?
340
Chi-square test: Concept &
Calculations
Measurements on 5 lines using two scales
with different accuracies:
Difference
Line 1 Scale Scale D2 %D
1 2 Ref. D= A – =
A B B D2/B
1 10 10.5
2 22 20.0
3 27 30
4 41 40
5 50.0 50.0
Total
inaccuracy:
(all 5 readings)
341
Chi Square test
Are CGPA and Placements related?

342
Chi-square test
• Formula for chi-square test :

Where: c is degree of freedom

• Oi are the observed values of the variable: he
Observed values are those you gather
yourselves.
• Ei are the expected value of the variable: The
expected values are the frequencies expected,
based on the null hypothesis
343
Chi-square test
The degrees of freedom in
a statistical calculation represent the number
of variables that can vary in a calculation.
Higher degree of freedom, higher is expected
variation

344
Chi square test example
Status Boy students Girl Students
Pass 17 20
Fail 8 5

345
Chi square example
Calculate Expected values & X2
E = row total x column total/grand total
Status Boy Girl Total
students Students
Pass 17(18.5) 20(18.5) 37
Fail 8(6.5) 5(6.5) 13
X2 = 0.1216+0.1216+0.3461+0.3461
25 25 50 = 0.9354
dF = (no. of Columns -1)(No. of Rows -1) = 1
Critical value (from Table for a = 0.05) = 3.841
Conclusion: Since X2 < Critical value, difference
is not significance. Can not Reject H0
346
Chi-Square test exercise
Some people get Covid even after getting
vaccinated. Does vaccination make any
difference?
Does the following data support this
contention? What is your hypothesis? What is
your conclusionGotbased
Covid on Xnot
Did 2
test with
Total 5%
get Covid
level of significance?
Vaccinated 31 469 500
Not 185 1315 1500
 Vaccinated
Total 216 1783 2000

347
Chi-square test
Example: Let's say you want to know if
gender has anything to do with political party
preference. You poll 440 voters in a simple
random sample to find out which political
party they prefer. The results of the survey
are shown in the table below:

348
Chi-square test
Step 1: Define the Hypothesis
H0: There is no link between gender and
political party preference.
H1: There is a link between gender and
political party preference.
Step 2: Calculate expected values.

349
Chi-square test
Calculations of expected values:

350
Chi-square test
Step 3: Calculate (O-E)2 / E for Each Cell in the
Table

351
Chi-square test
Step 4: Calculate the Test Statistic X 2

X2 is the sum of all the values in the last table

 = 0.743 + 2.05 + 2.33 + 3.33 + 0.384 + 1
 = 9.837
Before you can conclude, you must first determine
the critical statistic, which requires determining
our degrees of freedom. The degrees of freedom in
this case are equal to the table's number of columns
minus one multiplied by the table's number of rows
minus one, or (r-1) (c-1). We have (3-1)(2-1) = 2.

352
Chi Square Critical Value Table

353
Chi-square test
For an alpha level of 0.05 and two degrees of
freedom, the critical statistic is 5.991, i.e. the
obtained variation is more than what we are
expecting as per H0 hypothesis
Conclusion
H0 can be rejected. This means you have
sufficient evidence to say that there is an
association between gender and political
party preference.

354
Chi Square test Example

355
Chi-square test: Example
Genetic theory states that children having one
parent of blood type A and the other of blood type
B will always be of one of three types, A, AB, B
and that the proportion of three types will on an
average be as 1 : 2 : 1. A report states that out of
300 children having one A parent and B parent,
30 per cent were found to be types A, 45 per cent
per cent type AB and remainder type B. Test the
hypothesis by χ2 test. Calculate Degree of
freedom(= (c-1)(r-1)). How much is X2 . What is
your hypothesis? What is your conclusion for 5%
level of significance?
356
Chi-squared test
Degrees of freedom:
1. Number of independent variables, e.g. in y = x + 3,
=1
2. basic Movements: e.g. degrees of freedom of a pen?
3. Degrees of freedom of an airplane?
4. Degree of freedom of a arm?
5. Degree of freedom of a class?
Application in robotics.
Less degree of freedom means less
Variation, smaller Chi square,
tighter limits
357
Chi-square test
X2 Test
Type Obs. Exp. O-E (O – (O-
E)2/E
E)2

X2=

358
Presentation of results: Report
Importance of written report
Organization of written report
Use of different types of charts and graphs
Importance of oral presentation

359
Organization of report
1. title page
2.Table of contents including list of figures
and tables
3. Executive summary
3.1Objectives
3.2Concise statement of methodolgy
3.3Results
3.4Conclusions
3.5recommendations

360
Organization of report
4. Body
4.1 introduction
4.2 research objective
4.3 research methodology (sample, sample size, sample
profile, sampling techniques, questionaire, test
statistic, and fieldwork)
4.4 Results and findings
Conclusions and recommendations
Limits of research
Future work


361
Organization of report
5. Appendix
5.1 copies of data collected
Statistical output details
General tables not included in the main body
Bibliography references
Other details
Letter of transmittal: delivery of report to client
Letter of authorization : from research
sponsoring agency

362
Writing Research Report
A research report contains complete information about
your work, i.e. objectives, scope, plans, data,
methods/algorithms, results, conclusions, discussions, even
recommendations / prescriptions / suggestions/ directions
for future work
Report conveys your work to the intended readers, so it
must be well organized to communicate your work.
Target readers of report are other professionals in the field
(so it is not populist, it contains a lot of jargon, i.e.
technical terms)
Research Report is different from Research Proposal or
Research Paper.
.

363
Research
Flow Chart
Report Writing

364
A Research Report
A Research Report generally include:

 Introduction and Statement of problem

 Review of relevant literature
 Statement of hypothesis or research objectives
 Theoretical resume
 Description of research design
 Description Experimental design
 Description of measurement and data analysis
 Error compounding
 Presentation of Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion, limitations, and implications
 Suggestions for future work
 Acknowledgements
 References cited
 Appendices
365
Research Paper
Research paper is a short form of research report, though
with same headings. Here the purpose is to inform about
your new algorithm/method and results
Publication Factors:
Journal Metrics
1. Impact factor : Citations in last two years /All Papers
Published in last two years
2. SNIP (Source Normalized Impact per paper
3. Cite Score: Citation from last three years of papers/total
number of papers published in last three years.
H-Index: A scientist’s performance based on papers
published and citations

366
Publishing Research
• 1. Journals
• 2. Journal metrics for ranking journals:
IF, SNIP, SJR, Cite Score
• 3. ORCid
• 4. DOI
• 5. UGC
• 6. Scopus
• 7. Web of Science
• 8. Google Scholar
• 9. Research Gate
367
RM
About some sections of research paper: abstract,
introduction, and literature review.
Abstract:
 An abstract is a short summary of your completed
research. It is intended to describe your work without
going into great detail. Abstracts should be self-contained
and concise, and direct, explaining your work as briefly and
clearly as possible. It is purely descriptive, without
including any diagram, table, formula or equation.
 Abstract does not say “I did this in this project. . . “ it just
selects a few actual lines from various sections of the
report itself, without doing any further explaining.
 Abstract hardly exceeds 200 words.

368
RM
Summary:
The words summary and abstract are often
used interchangeably. Summary, like
abstract, is also a condensed version of the
paper. But there is distinct difference
between them. Summary can be a little
longer than abstract and can include a
diagram, formula, or equation. Abstract &
summary differ in terms of details.

369
RM
Introduction:
Introduction states the context of the paper,
why you conducted your study, what you
wanted to accomplish, and what is your
hypothesis or main idea. It may include an
general introduction to your field of study. For
example, if your project is about measurements
on Indian Classical Music, the introduction
section may include introduction to ICM itself,
i.e. Sur, Taal, and Raga, as these concepts are
the basis of your measurements.
370
Research Proposal
Simply put, a research proposal is a structured,
formal document that explains what you plan to
research (your research topic), why it’s worth
researching (your justification), and how you plan
to investigate it (your methodology).
The purpose of the research proposal (its job, so
to speak) is to convince your research supervisor,
committee or university that your research
is suitable (for the requirements of the degree
program) and manageable (given the time and
resource (financial) constraints you will face).

371
Research Proposal
Research Proposal

A research proposal describes what you will

investigate, why it's important, and how you will
conduct your research. The format of a research
proposal varies between fields, but most proposals
will contain at least these elements: Title page.
Introduction. Literature review.1

372
Research Proposal
Research Proposal: aims to seek approval, funds for
research
Project title. Your title should clearly indicate what
your proposed research is about.
Research supervisor. ...
Proposed mode of research. ...
Aims and objectives. ...
Synopsis. ...
Background. ...
Expected research contribution. ...
Proposed methodology.
373
Research Proposal
A research proposal is a document proposing
a research project, generally in the sciences
or academia, and generally constitutes a
request for sponsorship of that research.
Proposals are evaluated on the cost and
potential impact of the proposed research,
and on the soundness of the proposed plan
for carrying it out.
Budget for research: funds required

374
Research Proposal
The format of a research proposal varies
between fields and levels of study but most
proposals should contain at least these
elements: introduction, literature review,
research design and reference list. Generally,
research proposals can range from 500-1500
words or one to a few pages long.

375
Research Proposal
How to write a project proposal
Write an executive summary. The executive
summary serves as the introduction to your project
proposal. ...
Explain the project background. ...
Present a solution. ...
Define project deliverables and goals. ...
List what resources you need. ...
State your conclusion. ...
Know your audience. ...
Be persuasive.
376
Research Proposal
While the exact structure and format required for a
research proposal differs from university to
university, there are four “essential ingredients” that
commonly make up the structure of a research
proposal:
A rich introduction and background to the proposed
research
An initial literature review covering the existing
research
An overview of the proposed research methodology
A discussion regarding the practicalities (project
plans, timelines, etc.)
377
Research Proposal
An effective grant application will be clear,
concise, comprehensive, and compelling.
These four “C”s may help you focus the
drafting and revision process for any
application. Aim to describe your research
project so that it is intelligible to an
interdisciplinary review panel.

378
RM Assignment 2 (submission by
May 6)
1. Study operations of our canteen. What is the
turnover of our main canteen? Make a report of
daily/monthly/yearly purchases and sales, system,
management structure, number of employees,
number of people visiting, improvements possible.
Write in the form of a research report.(for Even
Roll Numbers)
2. Study MIT’s parking problem. Number of two
wheelers, 4 wheelers. Numbers parked at every
hour. Current system. How can it be improved?
Write in the form of a research report. (for Odd
roll numbers)
379
Data Definition. (Unit 3 Contd.)
Data: is (measured) information, translated
into a form that is suitable for processing.
In any research, a lot of data has to be
collected, data based on experimentation
or observations.
Definition: facts and statistics collected
together for reference or analysis
Things known or assumed as facts, making
the basis of reasoning or calculation
380
Data Definition
data is a collection of discrete or continuous
values that convey information, describing
the quantity, quality, fact, statistics, other
basic units of meaning, or simply sequences
of symbols that may be further interpreted
formally
Data in Marathi or Hindi: mostly ‘data’ is
used.
Ankada (derived from ank which means
number or numeral), ankade, Mahiti, Gosht
381
Data forms
Data can come in the form of text, observations,
figures, images, numbers, graphs, or symbols.
For example, data might include individual prices,
weights, addresses, ages, names, temperatures,
dates, or distances. Data is a raw form of
knowledge and, on its own, doesn't carry any
significance or purpose.
Data is plural of datum. First used in English in
1640’s
One statement of master detective Sherlock Homes
(1880): “Data! Data! Data!
His deductions are based on data!
382
Data in computers
Examples of data: income data, attendance,
weather data: temperature, Humidity,
Pressure, Sales data
the quantities, characters, or symbols on
which operations are performed by a
computer, which may be stored and
transmitted in the form of electrical signals
and recorded on magnetic, optical, or
mechanical recording media.

383
‘Data’ mentioned in an old story
https://youtu.be/2UQE5vR1Dc8a. Data, Data,
Data. . . Sherlock Homes to Dr Watson (1880 to 1914)

384
Data: Sherlock Homes Quotes
[Sherlock Holmes:] “I never guess. It is a
capital mistake to theorize before one has
data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to
suit theories, instead of theories to suit
DataDataData_68de3031-d610-4e34-8b24-ba58a0a0e7e1.mp4

facts.”
[Sherlock Holmes:] “The temptation to form
premature theories upon insufficient data is
the bane of our profession.”
https://youtu.be/iA_KZwlnrcI

385
Data collection
Four types of data
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio

386
Big Data
Big data & data analytics
Big data is data that contains greater variety,
arriving in increasing volumes and with more
velocity. This is also known as the three Vs.
Put simply, big data is larger, more complex
data sets, especially from new data sources.
Thousands of GBs
Examples: GPS, Satellites, Aeroplanes
generate continuous stream of data, consumer
surveys, MNCs
387
Data importance
Importance of data:
Data allows organizations to more effectively
determine the cause of problems. Data allows
organizations to visualize relationships between what
is happening in different locations, departments, and
systems.
Five reasons: 1) decision-making, 2) problem solving, 3)
understanding, 4) improving processes, and 5)
understanding customers.
Data collection can help improve services, understand
consumer needs, refine business strategies, grow and
retain customers, and even sell the data as second-party
data to other businesses at a profit.
388
Data types
The task of data collection begins after a research
problem has been defined and research design/
plan chalked out.
Two types of data:
The primary data are those which are collected
afresh and for the first time, thus original data
The secondary data, on the other hand, are
those which have already been collected by
someone else.
Examples: data in journals, govt. reports, news
paper articles, books, internet
389
Data collection methods
Data collection sources

390
Data Secondary
Benefits & Limitation:
1. It already exists, no time & effort to spend
in collection
2. Standard, trustworthy data available, so no
point in taking again
Limitations: selection, collection, quality not
under control
Accurate? Correct but Outdated? (e.g.
customer preferences recorded 5 years back
may not be relevant today.
391
Secondary data example

392
Data Collection Secondary
Buy data (computerized, commercial data)
Saleable data in the forms of reports,
pictures, videos
Demographic info
Companies who collect and sell:
indiasat.com, CMIE Pvt. Ltd., Indian National
Digital Library . . .
Media resources: Print media e.g. The
Economics Times, Business Standard,
Financial Times
393
Secondary data
Secondary data collection:
Factors to be considered:
1. Reliability of data: authenticity, which
source? Journal, magazine, Govt. record
2. suitability of data: exactly matching with
application
3. adequacy of data: sufficient to draw
conclusion?

394
How to select secondary data
1. Identify the need e.g. import & export
data
2. evaluate quality : relevancy, objectivity,
accuracy, authenticity, dependability
3. Internal or external

395
Secondary data

396
Data collection Primary
Primary data:
Experiments & Surveys:
(i) observation method,
(ii) interview method,
(iii) through questionnaires,
(iv) through schedules, and

397
Data collection Primary
Primary Data collection:
(a) warranty cards;
(b) distributor audits;
(c) pantry audits;
(d) consumer panels;
(e) using mechanical devices;
(f) through projective techniques;
exrtrapolation
(g) depth interviews, and
(h) content analysis
398
Data collection
Experimental method:
Experiments: a large variety:
Physics, chemistry, engineering
Isolating a variable, and experimentally measuring it.
E.g. temperature, length, distances, frequency,
weight.
Stretching a Spring
Also includes simulations:
Circuit performance, aeroplanes (effect of strong
winds), space (effect of zero gravity, high G beahiour)

399
Data collection Primary
Experimental:
Thresholds:
Change of state
Strength of materials

400
Data Collection: Primary
The observation method is the most commonly used
method
Observation: inspection like in quality control, visual
inspection: colour, shape
Observation: looking around, studying habits,
behaviour
Observation: without involving a respondent, so no
subject bias, suited in situations when subjects are
not capable of verbal response, e.g. children
Example: time and motion study
Based only on what is currently happening, Not past
or future
401
Data collection
controlled and uncontrolled observation:
medical studies are controlled (temperature,
seating, environment)
Standardised conditions, e.g. in hearing
measurements
Uncontrolled: natural surroundings

402
Data collection: Primary Data
Observation method: limitations: missing interaction
with subjects can hide some special conditions e.g. why
a person is working slow.
It is not easy to just stand and observe people. People
don’t like it.
Lack of standardised conditions
Observations: structured (well planned and executed),
Suited for situation you know and understand
Unstructured: not planned, improvised depending on
situation (suited for exploratory studies)
Participant observer: mingle with students, workers,
professionals
403
Data collection Primary
Interview method:
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses
Personal interviews: (have you interviewed a person?)
Ask about age, income, likes, dislikes, possessions, job,
business, opinions, complaints, problems
Mostly face to face
interviewer initiates the interview
on the spot
meet people
cross-examine (mostly a negative connotations):
committees, govt. methods
404
Data collection Primary
Personal interviews: structured, can’t waste
peoples time, can’t irritate people
set of predetermined questions, standardised
recording techniques
Focussed interview is meant to focus attention
on the given experience of the respondent
Depends on skills of interviewer
Avoid leading questions: don’t you think carbs
are bad for health?
clinical interview: understand
medical/psychological problems
405
Data collection Primary
non-directive interviews: just encouraging individuals to
talk, hope they give out the information you are seeking
Merits/demerits of the interview method:
1. greater depth
2. can overcome the resistance
3. greater flexibility to change direction
4. recording verbal answers
5. Personal information can as well be obtained
6. can be adopted to the ability or educational level
7. possibility of the bias
8. time consuming

406
Data collection Primary
Telephone interviews:
widely used method
Cheaper

407
Time & Motion data collection
PCB Assembly

408
Data collection Primary
Appropriateness of methods: in what
circumustances which method will be
better?
1. Nature, scope, and objective
2. Availability of funds: more funds: contact
large no. of people
3. time factor : less time factor telephonic
personal interview
4. precision required: more precision :
carefully prepared questionnaire method
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Data collection Primary
Case study method
For collecting facts and analysing data
Systematic field research
Diagnosis and identification of factors
Remedial measures
Follow-up
Exhaustive
Disadvantage: information is never complete

410
Data: Processing & Analysis
Initial processing of raw data:
1. Editing: raw data, checking for mistakes, gaps,
entered correctly, consistent, like editing text:
spellings, grammar, sentence structure etc.
2. Coding: assigning numbers or symbols, helps
creating categories, classifications
3. classification: homogenous groups, common
characteristics
A. Classification based on attributes: e.g. gender,
income level, age, weight, education level. NxM
(example of ice creams)
B. Classification based on class intervals:
411
Data: Processing & analysis
Classification:
Suitable for numerical attributes e.g. income, marks
How many classes?
Class intervals?
I = R/(1 + 3.3 Log N)
Example: Number of students = 80,
Range of marks : 0 to 100
Class intervals: inclusive or exclusive?
Frequency of each class?
Example of complete table.

412
Data: Processing & analysis
Tabulation:
tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and
displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of
statistical tables) for further analysis
concise and logical order
orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows
Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and
descriptive statement to a minimum. 2. It facilitates the
process of comparison. 3. It facilitates the summation
of items and the detection of errors and omissions. 4. It
provides a basis for various statistical computations

413
Data: Processing & analysis
Tabulation: exercise:
TV company: sales for Jan, Feb, March, April 2022
TV models 19”, 25”, 36”
Each model is manufactured in two units: Noida, Pune
Assume sales figures and tabulate
Sales in each category: 19” Pune: 19 m/23m/22m/23,
19” Noida: 20m/25m/24m, 26m, 25” Pune:
20m/22m/26m/30m, 25” Noida: 19m/18m/18m/19m,
36” Pune: 26m/27m/ 29m/38m, 36” Noida:
18m/20m/19m/22m

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Tabulation
 XYZ Co Ltd.: TV Sales Jan to April
2022

415
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis: e.g. calculation of
several measures
Regression, correlation
Inferential analysis : e.g. hypothesis testing

416
Data analysis: Possibilities:
Calculation of several parameters:

Central tendencies:
mean, median, mode

Measures of dispersion:
Range, standard deviation

Measures of asymmetry: skew-ness, Kurtosis

417
Data analysis
Measures of relationships:
Association with other variables:
Correlation :
Regression y = ax + b
Example: sales & profit, income & expenses
Other analysis:
Time series: trends, seasonal variation, long
term variations
Index numbers

418
Data Analysis
Time series:
Sequence of data points collected over an
interval of time. E.g. sales vs. month: Trend,
seasonal variation, random, long term

419
Data Analysis
Index Numbers

420
Data analysis
Displaying data
Graphs:
Bar graph
Histogram
Line graphs
3-dimensional graphs:

421
Data analysis
Line graphs
1.A researcher collected data about income levels
of a group of 100 people, and found the
following data:
(10k, 35), (20k, 25), (30k 20), (40k, 12), 50k, 8)
Draw a line graph.
2. Draw a histogram of above data.
3. A company had following sales data: (Jan 20m),
(Feb, 30m), (Mar, 50m), (Apr, 40m), (May,
35m), (June, 30m). Draw a bar graph of sales.
422
Questions for Unit 3: M & S
What are four data types? What are the
differences?
What are criteria for good measurement?
What is reliability? How do ensure reliability?
What is the need for so many different scales?
Explain ranking.
Is a 10 point scale better than 5 point scale?
Define sensitivity.
What are the reasons for measurement errors?
What is the best measure of measurement errors?

423
Questions on M & S
What are the steps in data collection?
Is primary data always better than secondary
data?
Give three examples of contrasting data
types.
How can you organize and display data?
What is data analysis? Why it is the most
important step in data collection?


424
Questions on M & S
Variables are containers of information.
Explain.
Describe the transformation concept to
indicators to variables.
Describe five categories of variables.

425
Questions on unit 2
Unit 2: Research Design
What is the concept of research design?
Why research design is important?
Can you represent design graphically?
What is a research proposal?
What are the objectives of research proposal?
Who are the organization where you submit
research proposal?

426
Questions on Unit 2
What are types of research? Explain any
three with examples.
What are longitudinal and cross sectional
research?
What are the steps in research process
design?


427
Questions on Unit 1
Unit 1:
What is business research and explain its
applications in managerial decision making?
What is good research?
Steps in research process?
What is plagiarism? What are its types?
How can plagiarism be prevented?
How plagiarism is detected?

428
Unit 4: Sampling

429
Sampling : Definition
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of
selecting a representative part of a
population for the purpose of determining the
characteristics of the whole population.

430
Sampling
Population vs. sample
The population is the entire group
 that you want to draw conclusions
about.
The sample is the specific group of
individuals that you will collect data from
A lack of a representative sample affects
the validity of your results, and can lead to
several research biases, particularly sampling
bias.
431
Sampling
Sampling: A trade off
1. Process of selecting a few samples from
population
2. A trade off between accuracy and resources
3. Through sampling you make an estimate of
population parameters
4. Randomization
5. Sample size: more the better (quantitative
research), up to point of saturation (qualitative
research)
432
Central Limit theorem
 The Central Limit theorem: the distribution of
means of random samples taken from a population
having mean m and finite variance s2 approaches
the normal distribution with mean m and variance
s2/n as n goes to infinity.
The significance of the central limit theorem lies in
the fact that it permits us to use sample statistics
to make inferences about population parameters
without knowing anything about the shape of the
frequency distribution of that population other
than what we can get from the sample.

433
Sampling frame
Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals
that the sample will be drawn from. Ideally, it
should include the entire target population (and
nobody who is not part of that population).
Example: Sampling frame: You are doing research
on working conditions at a social media marketing
company. Your population is all 1000 employees of
the company. Your sampling frame is the
company’s HR database, which lists the names and
contact details of every employee.

434
Sample size
Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in
your sample depends on various factors, including
the size and variability of the population and your
research design. There are different sample size
calculators and formulas depending on what you
want to achieve with statistical analysis.
1. Heterogeneous/homogenous population:
2. Number of classes: age, income
3. Nature of study: intensive, long duration, no. of
parameters
435
Sampling Design

436
Sampling design
Sampling design steps
1.Defining the target population.
2.Specifying the sampling frame.
3.Specifying the sampling unit.
4.Selection of the sampling method.
5.Determination of sample size.
6.Specifying the sampling plan.
7.Selecting the sample.

437
Sampling methods
Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every
member of the population has a chance of
being selected. It is mainly used
in quantitative research. If you want to
produce results that are representative of the
whole population, probability sampling
techniques are the most valid choice.

438
Sampling methods
sampling method. There are two primary
types of sampling methods that you can use
in your research:
Probability sampling involves random
selection, allowing you to make strong
statistical inferences about the whole group.
Non-probability sampling involves non-
random selection based on convenience or
other criteria, allowing you to easily collect
data.
439
Sampling methods

440
Sampling methods
1. Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of
the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple
random sampling, but it is usually slightly
easier to conduct. Every member of the
population is listed with a number, but instead
of randomly generating numbers, individuals
are chosen at regular intervals.
441
Sampling methods

442
Sampling methods
Example: Systematic sampling: All
employees of the company are listed in
alphabetical order. From the first 10
numbers, you randomly select a starting
point: number 6. From number 6 onwards,
every 10th person on the list is selected (6,
16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a
sample of 100 people.

443
Sampling methods
3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population
into sub-populations that may differ in important ways
To use this sampling method, you divide the
population into subgroups (called strata) based on the
relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age
range, income bracket, professions, job role).
Example: Stratified sampling: The company has 800
female employees and 200 male employees. You want
to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance
of the company, so you sort the population into two
strata based on genders
444
Sampling methods
4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the
population into subgroups, but each subgroup
should have similar characteristics to the
whole sample.
Example: Cluster sampling: The company has
offices in 10 cities across the country. Three
out of these are your clusters.

445
Sampling methods
Non-probability sampling methods
In a non-probability sample, individuals are
selected based on non-random criteria, and
not every individual has a chance of being
included.

446
Sampling methods

447
Sampling Methods
1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the
individuals who happen to be most accessible
to the researcher.
2. Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary
response sample is mainly based on ease of
access. Instead of the researcher choosing
participants and directly contacting them,
people volunteer themselves
448
Sampling methods
3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement
sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to
the purposes of the research. Used in qualitative
research
4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball
sampling can be used to recruit participants via
other participants. The number of people you have
access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with
more people.
449
Sampling methods
5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random
selection of a predetermined number or
proportion of units. This is called a quota.
Example: Quota samplingYou want to gauge
consumer interest in a new produce delivery
service in Pune, focused on dietary
preferences. You divide the population into
meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans,

450
Sampling methods

451
Sampling methods: Summary

452
Comparison
Comparison
Tech. Cost Time Bias Rep.
Non Prob
Convenienc low low high May not
e
Judgmental
Quota
Snowball
Prob.
Random
Systematic
Cluster
453
Stratified
Sampling

454
Sampling errors
Sampling error is affected by a number of
factors including sample size, sample design,
the sampling fraction and the variability
within the population. In general, larger
sample sizes decrease the sampling error.

455
Sampling error
A sampling error is random differences
between the results of a survey and the actual
results of the population (predictions vs. actual
results)
The absolute value of the difference between
the sample mean denoted as x̄, and the
population mean is denoted by μ, written as |x̄
− μ|, is known as the
Other names of sampling error: estimation
error, margin of error, statistical error,
sample size limitation. ME = 1.98 x 0.5/√100
456
Sampling error & sampling bias
While sampling error is due to chance,
sampling bias is due to systematic errors in
the sampling process.

457
Sampling questions
1. What is the difference between a sample
and a census?
2. Why is sampling so important for a
researcher? For a manufacturer?
3. Explain the sampling design process.
4. What are sampling and non sampling errors
and how can a researcher control them?
5. Explain the types of probability or random
sampling techniques.

458
Sampling questions
6. How do probability and non probability
sampling differ?
7. What is the concept of sampling distribution
and also state its importance in inferential
statistics?
8. What is acceptance sampling? Define terms:
Producer’s Risk and Consumer’s Risk. What is
CO?

459
Appendix: Questionnaire
design
To conduct surveys, good questionnaire are
required.
A questionnaire consists of formalized and pre
specified set of questions designed to obtained
responses from potential respondents.
Questions in questionnaire reflect research
objectives.
Questionnaires are situation and culture
specific.
Three stages of design : pre construction,
construction, post construction
460
Questionnaire design
Questionnaires use two types of question
formats: open ended, close ended.
Open ended: verbalize in preliminary answer,
unstructured. Example: who is your favorite
person
Close ended: provide response alternatives.
Reduce burden on the respondents
Examples: do you think India will win: yes,
no, can not say, Pl specify your gender:

461
Questionnaire design
Dichotomous questions: generally only two
responses
Multiple choice
Scales: closed ended, multiple choice
Questions wordings must be simple and easy to
understand, e.g. use view instead of perception
Avoid vague or ambiguous words: e.g.
occasionally, reasonable
Avoid double barreled questions: using and , or
e.g. would you prefer an outing with your family,
and where will you like to go.
462
Questionnaire design
Avoid leading questions (which reveals
researcher’s opinion): e.g. Aren’t you satisfied
with the product?
Avoid loaded questions: Wont every patriotic
Indian prefer Indian product?
Avoid using overstated words which may scare
Avoid implied assumption: do you think . . .
Logical order of questions e.g. start with name
Screening questions: initial questions to
determine if survey is meant for you
463
 Thank You
 Thank You

464