Module-1

Sensors and Measurement System

Dr. Subhas Meti
Professor, Dept of ECE
SKSVMA College of Engineering and Technology,
Lakshmeshwar
• Sensors and measurement system: Sensors and
transducers, Classifications of transducers-primary &
secondary, active & passive, analog and digital
transducers. Smart sensors.
• Measurement: Definition, significance of measurement,
instruments and measurement systems. mechanical,
electrical and electronic instruments. Elements of
generalized measurement system with example. Input-
output configuration of measuring instruments and
measurement systems, methods of correction for
interfering and modifying inputs.
Sensors and measurement system
• BASICS – MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Measurement devices perform a complete
measuring function, from initial detection to final
indication.
The important aspects of measurement system are;
a. Sensor – Primary sensing element
b. Transducer – changes one form of energy to another
form energy
c. Transmitter – Contains the transducer and produces an
amplified, standardized energy signal.
 INTRODUCTION – SENSORS
• A device which provides a usable output in
response to a specified measurand.
• Sensor is a device that detects and responds to
some type of input from the physical
environment
• Input could be light, heat, motion, moisture,
force, pressure, displacement, etc.
• It produces a proportional output signal
(electrical, mechanical, magnetic, etc.).
• Human beings are equipped with 5 different
types of sensors.
• Eyes detect light energy, ears detect acoustic
energy, a tongue and a nose detect certain
chemicals, and skin detects pressures and
temperatures. The eyes, ears, tongue, nose, and
skin receive these signals then send messages to
the brain which outputs a response.
• For example, when you touch a hot plate, it is
your brain that tells you it is hot, not your skin.
BIOLOGICAL SENSING PROCESS
• A stimulus is received at the receptor where
the dendrites of the neurons convert the
energy of the stimulus into electromechanical
impulses in the dendrites of the neurons.

• The action potentials interpreted by the brain

to create the corresponding sensory
perception
 NEED FOR SENSORS
• Sensors are omnipresent. They embedded in our bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and countless other applications.
• Sensors in industrial applications being used for process control, monitoring, and safety,
and in medicine being used for diagnostics, There monitoring, critical care, and public
health.
• Sensors can improve the world through diagnostics in medical applications; improved
performance of energy sources like fuel cells and batteries and solar power; improved
health and safety and security for people; sensors for exploring space and improved
environmental monitoring.
• Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation!  We live in the World of
Sensors.
• In our day-to-day life we frequently use different types of sensors in several applications.
• We can find different types of Sensors in our homes, offices, cars etc. Working to make
our lives easier by turning on the lights by detecting our presence, adjusting the room
temperature, detect smoke or fire, make us delicious coffee and open garage doors as
soon as our car is near the door and many other tasks.
• What is a Sensor?
The sensor is the device that detects the changes in the
environment. It can be a temperature sensor, pressure sensor,
or Humidity sensor. As we Know sensors sense just like eyes
and ears Sensor measured information (data being sensed)
shall be sent to the processor or controller for them to work on
it.
• What is Transducer?
A Transducer is a device that transforms energy from one form
to another. It also transforms a non-electrical physical into an
electrical signal. It provides output response to specific input
measured which may be physical quantity.
Difference between Sensor and Transducer
Criteria Sensors Transducers
The sensor converts physical quantity into electrical Transducers transform one form of energy
Definition
quantity. into another form of energy.

The sensor does not comprise any other The transducer is comprised of signal
Components
component other than itself. conditioning and sensors.
With respect to the temperature change, changes in With respect to voltage change, changes in
Changes in Resistance
resistance occur. resistance occur.

Detects the changes in the physical environment Does not detect or manipulate, rather it
Detection capability
and manipulates the electrical signal. converts the form of energy.

Complication It is a less complicated device. It is a complicated device.

The transducer sends feedback to the

The sensor can detect but it does not have the
Limitation desired system after completing the process
capability to provide the desired system by itself.
in the signal conditioning unit.

Types of transducers: linear transducer,

Types of sensors: capacitive sensor, infrared sensor,
Types strain gauge, pressure transducers,
passive infrared sensor, etc.
inductive transducers, thermocouple, etc.

Applications that use sensors are automatic flight Applications include microphones, sound
Applications control systems, smart vehicles, smart grids, and speakers, weighing machines, ramp lifting,
environmental monitoring. and engine controls.
Transducer Classification
 Types of transducers
• Active Transducer
• The transducers, which develop their output in form
of electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary
source are known as active transducers.
• They draw energy from the system under
measurement.
• They give very small output and use of amplifier is
essential.
Examples: Tachogenerator, Thermocouple, Piezo-
electric crystals, photovoltaic cell etc.
• Passive Transducer
• The transducers in which, the electrical parameters i.e.
resistance, inductance and capacitance changes with
change in input signal.
• They require external power source for energy conversion.
• In this, electrical parameters cause a change in voltage,
current or frequency of the external power source.
• They may draw some energy from the system under
measurement.
Examples: Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive transducer.
• Analog Transducer
• Analog transducer converts input signal into
output signal, which is a continuous function
of time.
Examples: Thermistor, Strain gauge, LVDT,
Thermocouple
• Digital Transducer
• Digital transducer converts input signal into
output signal of the form of pulses e.g. it gives
discrete output.
• These transducers are becoming more popular.
• Sometimes, analog transducer combined with
ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) is called digital
transducer.
Examples: Encoders, Hall effect sensors
Primary Transducer
When input signal is directly sensed by transducer and physical
phenomenon is converted into electrical form directly then such
transducer called primary transducer. Examples: Thermistor.

Secondary Transducer
When input signal is directly sensed first by some sensor and then
its output being of some form other than input signal I given as
input to a transducer for conversion into electrical form, then it’s
called secondary transducer.
Examples: LVDT for used pressure measurement by using bourdon
tube
• Transducer (Electrical)
• It is a device that converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity.
Examples: Thermocouple, Pressure gauge, Strain gauge, Photovoltaic
cell
• Inverse Transducer
• It is a device that converts an electrical quantity into non-electrical
quantity.
• It is a precision actuator having an electrical input and low-power non-
electrical output.
• A most useful application of inverse transducer is in feedback
measurement systems.
Examples: Piezo-electric crystal
 Measurement
• The measurement is the result of the comparison of standard
and the unknown quantity. The result of the measured
quantity is generally expressed in numeric forms. In other
words, the measurement is the process through which the
physical parameters like heat, displacement, force etc. is
converted into the easily readable numeric value.
• In order that the results of the measurement are meaningful, there are
two basic requirements :
i. The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately
defined and should be commonly accepted.
ii. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
 Significance of Measurements
• The advancement of Science and Technology is dependent upon a parallel
progress in measurement techniques. It can be safely said that the quickest way
to assess ·a nation's progress in Science and Technology is to examine the type
of measurements that are being made and the way in which the data is acquired
by measurements and is processed.
• The reasons for this are obvious. As Science and Technology move ahead, new
phenomena and relationships are discovered and these advances make new
types of measurements imperative. New discoveries are not of any practical
utility unless they are backed by actual measurements.
• The measurements, no doubt, confirm the validity of a hypothesis but also add
to its understanding. This results in an unending chain which leads to new
discoveries that require more, new and sophisticated measurement techniques.
• Hence modern Science and Technology are associated with sophisticated
methods of measurement while elementary Science and Technology require
only ordinary methods of measurement.
 Significance of Measurements
 We require measuring quantities for performance in our day to day activities.
 Fundamental requirement of any process is the measurement. Example;

input is fed to the system it undergoes a process output is indicated.

output is compared with input-measurement.
 Quantities pertaining to operation & performance of the device being developed.
 Measurement provides the fundamental basis for research & development as it involves measurement of various
quantities and parameters.
 Also, a fundamental element of any control process, which requires the measured discrepancy between the
actual & desired performances.
• Measurement is also considered as a method of inspection
• Measurement technology combined with computer integrated manufacturing and database management
systems provide information based process control
• I.e. to prevent the occurrence of more number of defects
 To ensure proper performance in operations of modern power stations to monitor température, pressure,
vibration amplitudes etc.
 Establish the cost of products on the basis of amount of material, power, time & labor,
 etc.
 Place/give realistic tolerance for each of the measured values.
• There are two major functions of all branches of
engineering :
 Design of equipment and processes, and
 Proper operation and maintenance of equipment
and processes.
• Both these functions require measurements. This
is because proper and economical design,
operation and maintenance require a feedback of
information. This information is supplied by
making suitable measurements.
 Methods of Measurement
• The methods of measurement may be broadly
classified into two categories.
• Direct Methods.
• Indirect Methods.
• Direct method: The value of a quantity is
immediately derived by comparing the unknown to
the standard. Direct measurement involves
measuring the same amount that you wish to
measure.
• Indirect method: Indirect measurement involves
measuring another quantity and determining the
needed value using a mathematical equation.
In engineering applications Measurement Systems are used. These
measurement systems use indirect methods for measurement purposes .
• A measurement system consists of a
transducing element which converts the
quantity to be measured in an analogous
form. The analogous signal is then processed
by some intermediate means and is then fed
to the end devices which present the results
of the measurement.
 Instrument
• Measurement generally involves using an
instrument as a physical means of determining a
quantity or variable.
• The instrument serves as an extension of human
abilities and enables the man to determine the
value of an unknown quantity which his unaided
human ability cannot measure.
“An instrument may be defined as a device for determining
the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable”.
 Types of Instruments
The first instruments were mechanical in nature and the principles on
which these instruments worked are even in vogue today. The earliest
scientific instruments used the same three essential elements as our
modern instruments do. These elements are;
(i) A detector
(ii) An intermediate transfer device and
(iii) An indicator, recorder or a storage device.

The history of development of instruments encompasses three phases of

instruments, viz. :
1. Mechanical instruments
2. Electrical instruments and
3. Electronic instruments.
 Mechanical Instruments
• These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions.
• But they suffer from a very major disadvantage. They are unable to
respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and transient conditions.
• This is due to the fact that these instruments have moving parts that
are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass
presents inertia problems and hence these instruments cannot
faithfully follow the rapid changes which are involved in dynamic
measurements.
• Thus it would be virtually impossible to measure a 50 Hz voltage by a
mechanical method, but it is relatively easy to measure a slowly varying
pressure.
• Another disadvantage of mechanical instruments is that 'most of them
are potential source of noise and cause pollution of silence.
 Electrical Instruments
• Electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are
more rapid than mechanical methods. It is unfortunate that
electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical
meter movement as indicating device. This mechanical
movement has some inertia and therefore these instruments
have a limited time response. (and hence, frequency):
For example,
Some electrical recorders can give full scale response in 0·2s
the majority of industrial reorders have responses of 0·5 to
24 s. Some galvanometers can follow 50 Hz variations, but
even these are too slow for present day requirements of fast
measurement.
 Electronic instrument
• These -days most of the scientific and industrial measurements require very fast responses. The
mechanical and electrical instrument and systems cannot cope up with these requirements.
• The necessity to step up response time and also the detection of dynamic changes in certain
parameters,.
• Which require the monitoring time of the order of ms and many a times, µs have led to the
design of today's electronic instruments and their associated circuitry.
• These instruments require vacuum tubes or semiconductor devices, Recent practice is to use
semiconductor devices as they have many advantages over their vacuum tube counter parts.
Since in electronic devices the only movement involved is that of electrons the response time is
extremely small on account of very small inertia of electron.
• For example a C.R.O. is capable of following dynamic and transient changes of the order of' a
few ns (10-9 s).
Classification of Instruments
Absolute instrument
• An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be
measured in terms of the instrument parameter. This instrument is really
used, because each time the value of the measuring quantities varies. So
we have to calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity, analytically
which is time consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for
laboratory use.
• Example: Tangent galvanometer.
Secondary instrument
• This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured
directly. Generally these instruments are calibrated by comparing with
another standard secondary instrument.
• Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc.
Practically secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.
 Analog and Digital Modes of Operation
• Secondary instruments work in two modes :
• Analog Mode and
• Digital modes
• Signals that vary in a continuous fashion and take on an
infinity of values in any given range are called analog
signals . The devices which produce these signals are
called analog Devices.
• In contrast, the signals which vary in discrete steps and
thus take up only finite different values in a given range
are called digital signals. The device that produces such
signals are called digital devices.
Functions of Instruments and Measurement Systems

• There is another way in which instruments or

measurement systems may be classified.
• This classification is based upon the functions
they perform.
• The three main functions are explained below:
1. Indicating Function.
2. Recording Function.
3. Controlling Function.
• Indicating Function Instruments and systems use
different kinds of methods for supplying information
concerning the variable quantity under measurement
Most of the time this information is obtained as a
deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument. In
this way the instrument performs a function which is
commonly known as indicating function.
• For example, the deflection of pointer of a
Speedometer indicates the speed of the automobile at
that moment. A pressure gauge is used for indicating
the pressure.
• Recording Function: In many cases the instrument
makes a written record, usually on paper of the
value of the quantity under measurement against
time or against some other variable. Thus the
instrument performs a recording function.
• For example, a potentiometric type of recorder
used for monitoring temperature records the
instantaneous temperatures on a strip chart
recorder.
• Controlling Function: This is one of the most
important functions especially in the field of
industrial control processes. In this case, the
information is used by the instrument or the
system to control the original measured
quantity.
• Thus there are three main groups of
instruments.
• The largest group has the indicating function.
• Next in line is the group of instruments which
have both indicating and or recording
functions.
• The last group falls into a special category and
performs all the three functions, I.e., indicating,
recording and controlling.
 Applications of Measurement Systems
• In order to build up background for our later
detailed study of measuring instruments and
systems and their characteristics, it is useful to
discuss, in general, the various ways these
instruments are put in use. The way the
instruments and measurement systems are used
for different applications
1. Monitoring of processes and operations.
2. control of processes and operations.
3. Experimental Engineering analysis.
Monitoring of Processes and Operations:
• There are certain applications of measuring instruments that
have essentially a monitoring function.
• They simply indicate the value or condition of parameter under
study and their readings do not serve any control functions.
• For example, an ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of
current or voltage being monitored (measured) at a particular
instant.
• Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in homes
keep track of commodity used so that later on its cost may be
computed to be realized from the user.
Control of Processes and Operations:

Block diagram of Simple Control System

• A very useful application of instruments is in automatic
control systems. There has been a very strong association
between measurement and control.
• In order that process variables like temperature, pressure,
humidity, etc. may be controlled, the prerequisite is that
they can be measured at the desired location in the
individual plants. Same is true of servo-systems, i.e.,
systems connected with measurement of position, velocity
and acceleration.
• A block diagram of a. simple control system is shown in
Fig.
• Let us assume that the output variable to be controlled is non-electrical and
the control action is through electrical means,
• The input is reference which corresponds to the desired value of the output.
The input is compared with the 'output with the help of a comparator.
• The output is a non-electrical quantity and is converted into a corresponding
electrical form by a transducer connected in the feedback loop.
• In case the input and output differ there is a resultant error signal. This error
signal is amplified and then fed to an actuator which produces power to
drive the controlled circuitry.
• The corrective action goes on till the output is at the same level as the input
which corresponds to the desired output.
• At this stage, there is no error signal and hence there is no input to the
actuator and the control action stops.
• Example: Refrigeration system
Experimental Engineering Analysis:
• For solution of engineering problems, theoretical and experimental methods
are available. Many applications require application of both the methods. The
relative capability of the method depends upon the nature of the problem.

Experimental engineering analysis has many uses and some are listed below :

1. Testing the validity of theoretical predictions.

2. Formulations of generalized. empirical relationships in cases where no proper
theoretical backing exists.
3. Determination of system parameters, variables and performance indices.
4. For development in important spheres of study where there is ample scope of
study.
5. Solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.
 Elements of a Generalized Measurement System

• It is important to have a systematic organization and analysis of

measurement systems. An instrument may be· defined as a device or a
system which is designed to maintain a functional relationship between
prescribed properties of physical variables and must include ways and
means of communication to a human observer. The functional
relationships remain valid only as long as the static calibration of system
remains constant.
• On the other hand, the performance of a measurement system can be
described in terms of static and dynamic characteristics.
• It is possible and desirable to describe the operation of a measuring
instrument or a system in a generalized manner without resorting to
intricate details of the physical aspects of a specific instrument or a
system.
• The whole operation can be described in terms of functional elements.
Most of the measurement systems contain three main functional
elements.
They are :
1. Primary Sensing Element,
2. Variable Conversion Element and
3. Data Presentation Element.
• Each functional element is made up of a distinct component or
groups of components which perform required and definite
steps in the measurement.
• These may be taken as basic elements whose scope is
determined by their functioning rather than their construction.
 Functional Elements of Instrumentation System

• Primary Sensing Element: The quantity under measurement

makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system. In other words the measurand is first
detected by primary sensor. This act is then immediately
followed by the conversion of measurand into an analogous
electrical signal. This is done by a transducer.
Variable Conversion Element:
• The output of the primary sensing element may be
any kind of electrical signal. It may be a voltage, a
frequency or some other electrical parameter. Some
times this output is not suited to the system.
• For the instrument to perform the desired function, it
may be necessary to convert this output to some
other suitable form while preserving the information
content of the original signal.
• Example: ADC or DAC
Variable Manipulation Element:
• The function of this element is to manipulate the signal
presented to it preserving the original nature of the signal.
• Manipulation here means a change in numerical value of
the signal.
• For example, an electronic amplifier accepts a small
voltage signal as input and produces an output signal
which is also voltage but of greater magnitude.
• Thus voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation
element.
• These processes may be linear like amplification, attenuation,
integration, differentiation, addition and subtraction.
• Some non-linear processes like modulation, detection,
sampling, filtering, chopping and clipping etc. are performed
on the signal to bring it to the desired form.
• This is called Signal Conditioning.
• The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in
addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation. In
fact the element that follows the primary sensing element in
any instrument or instrumentation system should be called
Signal Conditioning Element.
• Data Presentation Element:
• The information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel
handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.
• The information conveyed must be in a form
intelligible to the personnel. This function is done
• by data presentation element.
• In case data is to be monitored, visual display
devices are needed. These devices may be analogue
or digital indicating instruments like ammeters.
voltmeters etc.
• ln case the data is to be recorded, recorders like
magnetic tapes, high speed camera and T.V.
equipment, storage type C.R.T., . printers, analogue
and digital computers may be used.
• For control and analysis purpose computers may be
used.
Generalized Measurement System
 INPUT-OUTPUT CONFIGURATION OF INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

• A generalized configuration containing

the significant input -output
relationships present in all measuring
apparatus,
• ▫ A scheme suggested by Draper,
McKay, and Lees
• Desired inputs : quantities that the
instrument is specifically intended to
measure.
• Interfering inputs: quantities to which
the instrument is unintentionally
sensitive.
• Modifying inputs: are the quantities
that cause a change in the input-
output relations for the desired and
interfering inputs
 Interfering/Modifying inputs
• The desired inputs p1 and p2 whose
difference causes the output x,
• which can be read off the calibrated
scale

Measuring pressures under acceleration

influence; an error will be engendered
because of the interfering acceleration
input.
 • If the manometer is not
properly aligned with the
gravity vector, it give an
interfering output signal
(also a modifying input).

Modifying inputs: ambient temperature and gravitational force.

Both the desired and the interfering inputs may be altered by the modifying inputs.
 Methods of Correction for Interfering
and Modifying Inputs
• A number of methods for nullifying/reducing
the effects of spurious inputs are available:
▫ The method of inherent insensitivity
▫ The method of high-gain feedback
▫ The method of calculated output corrections
▫ The method of signal filtering
▫ The method of opposing inputs