Psychology: (8th Edition, in Modules) David Myers

PSYCHOLOGY
(8th Edition, in Modules)

David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2007 1

Forgetting, Memory
Construction and Applying
Memory Principles to Your
Own Education
Module 28
2
Forgetting, Memory Construction
and…
Forgetting
 Encoding Failure
 Storage Decay
 Retrieval Failure
Memory Construction
 Misinformation and Imagination
Effect
3
Forgetting, Memory Construction
and…
Memory Construction…
 Source Amnesia
 Discerning True and False Memories
 Children’s Eyewitness Recall
 Repressed or Constructed Memories
of Abuse?
Improving Memory
4
Forgetting
Inability to retrieve information, due to
poor encoding, storage or retrieval.
5
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we did not
encode.
6
Which penny is real?
7
Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to
their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with
his forgetting curve.
8
Retaining Spanish
Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of
forgetting and retention over 50 years.
Andrew Holbrooke/ Corbis

9
Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the
memory store it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure

phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes the blood
cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H
(hemoglobin). 10
Interference
Learning some information may disrupt
retrieval of other information.
11
Retroactive Interference
Sleep avoids retroactive interference thus
leading to better recall.
12
Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting:
People unknowingly
revise their memories.
Repression: Defense
mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and
Culver Pictures
memories from
consciousness.
Sigmund Freud
13
Why do we forget?
Forgetting can occur at

any memory stage; we
filter, alter, or lose
much information
during these stages.
14
Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in

missing pieces of information to make our
recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating

misleading information into one's memory of
an event.
15
Misinformation and Imagination
Effects
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when
questioned about the event.
Depiction of the actual accident. 16

Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going
when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going

when they smashed into each
other?
17
Memory Construction
A week later they were asked; Was there any
broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported
more broken glass than Group A (hit).
18
Source Amnesia
Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the
wrong source we have experienced, heard,
read, or imagined (misattribution).
19
Discerning True & False Memories
Just like true perception and illusion, real
memories or memories that seem real are
difficult to discern.
© Simon Niedsenthal
When students formed happy or angry memory of
morphed (computer blended) faces (a), they made
the (computer assisted) faces (b) either happier or angrier. 20
False Memories
Repressed or Constructed?
Some adults do actually forget childhood
episodes of abuse.
False Memory Syndrome

A condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists.
21
Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if
leading questions are posed, however, if
cognitive interviews are neutrally worded
accuracy of their recall increases usually
suggesting lower percentage of sexual abuse.
22
Memories of Abuse
Are memories of abuse repressed or
constructed?
Many psychotherapists believe that early

childhood sexual abuse results in repressed
memories.
However other psychologists question such

beliefs and think that such memories may be
constructed.
23
Constructed Memories
Loftus’ research has shown that if false
memories (lost at the mall, or drowned in a lake)
are implanted in individuals, they construct
(fabricate) their memories.
Don Shrubshell
24
Consensus on Childhood Abuse
Leading psychological associations of the world agree

on the following about childhood sexual abuse.
1. Injustice happens
2. Incest and other sexual abuse happens
3. Forgetting happens
4. Recovered memories are commonplace
5. Recovered memories under hypnosis or drugs are
unreliable.
6. Memories of things happening before 3 years are
unreliable
7. Memories whether real or false are emotionally
upsetting
25
Improving Memory
1. Study repeatedly to boost recall long-term
recall.
2. Spend more time rehearsing or actively
thinking about the material.
3. Make material personally meaningful.
4. Use mnemonic devices:
 associate with peg words — something already
stored
 make up story
 chunk — acronyms
26
Improving Memory
1. Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate
situation and mood.
2. Recall events while they are fresh — before
you encounter misinformation.
3. Minimize interference:
1. Test your own knowledge
2. Rehearse and determine what you do not yet
know
© LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis
27

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What are some causes of forgetting?

What is memory construction and how can it affect recall?

PSYCHOLOGY

(8th Edition, in Modules)

Worth Publishers, © 2007 1

Andrew Holbrooke/ Corbis

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure

Forgetting can occur at

While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in

Misinformation Effect: Incorporating

Depiction of the actual accident. 16

Group B: How fast were the cars going

False Memory Syndrome

Many psychotherapists believe that early

However other psychologists question such

Leading psychological associations of the world agree

© LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis

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