Chapter One

Introduction to computers
In this chapter you will specifically:
 Define clearly what is term

computer.
 Identify the characteristics of

computer.
 Explain the application areas of

computer.
 Explain generation of computer.
 Identify the different type of

computer. 04/28/2025 1
 Introduction to computers

What is
• COMPUTER?
A computer is an electronic device that
accepts data, processes the accepted data,
and then displays the result.
• More accurately, A computer is a machine
which receive an input(data), processes it
according to a predefined
program/instruction and then stores it, and
gives an output, i.e. provides the result in
printed or visual form.

• The word ‘computer’ comes from the Latin

word ‘compute’ means to calculate.
04/28/2025 2
 Generation of computers
 Generation in computer language is a
steps in technology.
 We have five generation of computer
 The major characteristics that
distinguish these generations of
computer are the following.
 Types of electronic circuit element
used
 Major secondary storage media used
 Computer language used.
Types of operating system used
Memory access time (time to store or
04/28/2025 3
 Generation of computers
A. First Generation computers (1944-
1955)
 used vacuum tubes as the principal electronic
components.
 punched cards were the main sources of input
and
 magnetic grams were used for internal storage.
 Memory access time was expressed in
milliseconds.
 Very large in size, slow in performance and
expensive in price.
 They uses machine & assembly language.
 Most application were scientific calculation.
 ENIAC & UNIVACI are examples of 1st 04/28/2025
generation 4
 Generation of computers
B. Second Generation Computers (1955-
1964)
 Transistor were the main ckt element.
-Transistors are solid state device made from
silicon.
 Magnetic tapes were used for main storage
media.
 Memory access times were expressed in
microseconds
 Emergence of high-level programming
languages, like FORTRAN, COBOL, & ALGOL.
(Easy to write)
 Batch operating systems is used that permit
rapid processing of magnetic tape files.
 04/28/2025 5
 Generation of computers
C. Third Generation Computers (1964-
1975)
 Transistors are replaced by Integrated
circuits(IC)
 Magnetic disc storage became popular
and provided direct access to very large
data files.
 Access time in these computers was
measured in nanoseconds (billionths of a
second).
 Structured programming languages were
introduced :PASCAL and BASIC.
 04/28/2025 6
 Generation of computers
 D. Fourth Generation Computers (1975-
1989)
 ICs are replaced by Large Scale
Integration (LSI)
 Access time in these computers was
measured in nanoseconds (billionths of a
second).
 Creation of MICROPROCESSOR. (for PCs).
 Spread of high-speed computer
networking. (LAN & WAN)
 Several new operating systems were
developed, like MS-DOS, Ms- Windows,
and UNIX. 04/28/2025 7
 Generation of computers
E. Fifth Generation computes (1989-
Present)
 Totally general purpose machines.
 Focus on artificial intelligence (AI) and advanced
computing technologies.
 Integration of parallel processing, natural language
processing, and expert systems.
 Emphasis on human-computer interaction and solving
complex problems.
04/28/2025 8
 Generation of computers
E. Fifth Generation computes (1989- Present)
 VLSI technology becomes Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI).
 Portable notebook computers, powerful desktop PCs, and workstations,
powerful servers and supercomputers
 Larger main memory > = 256 Mb, and hard disk >= 80 GB are common
 Optical disks emerged named as CD-ROMs
 Distributed operating system for computer network.

04/28/2025 9
Generation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Circuit Vacuum tube Transistor IC LSI VLSI

element

SSD Punched Magnetic Magnetic Mass

card Tape disk Device
storage

Language Machine & Fortran, Structured Application

Assembly COBOL language oriented
Etc
Operating Operator Batch Application Time
system control system oriented sharing

Mem. 1ms 10µs 10ns 1ns

Access time

Approx. date 1946-57 1958-64 1965-71 From 1971

above
04/28/2025 10 10
 Characteristics of Computer
1. STORAGE
 Computes can handle large amount of data.
 Once recorded, The information can never be
forgotten and can be retrieved with a fraction of
a second.

Its storage capacity is measured as follows:

Bit = The smallest information stored in a computer(0 or
1).
 Byte = character = 8 bits.
 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes.
 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 Kilobytes.
 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 Megabytes.
 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 Gigabytes 04/28/2025 11
 Characteristics of Computer
2. SPEED
 Computers are very fast devices.
 They work at an incredible speed and perform
millions of calculations and comparisons in a
second.
Its speed is measured by:
 Millisecond = 1/1000 of a second.
 Microsecond = 1/1000,000 of a second.
 Nanosecond = 1/1000,000,000 of a second.
 Pico second = 1/1000,000,000,000 of a second.

04/28/2025 12
 Characteristics of Computer
3. ACCURACY
 Computers process vast amount of data in a very high
speed without committing errors
 Errors can occur mainly due to humans’ incorrect input
data, and program instructions with a problem.(often
called GIGO).
4. DILIGENCE
 Computers are not bored or become tired of
performing many thousands of calculations
repeatedly.
5. VERSATILITY
 A computer is capable of performing almost any
task provided that the task can be reduced to a
series of logical steps.
For example, the same computer used for process
payroll can also be used for Design computations
or to track Inventory. 04/28/2025 13
 Characteristics of Computer
6. DURABILITY and RELIABILITY
 Computers are durable and extremely reliable
devices.
 They can operate error-free over long periods of
time.
7. LACK of DECISION-MAKING
 Computers do not have the capacity to think by
their own.
 Their IQ is zero and they had to be told what to
do and in what sequence.

04/28/2025 14
 Types of Computers
 Their are different types of Computers. Their difference
is depending on different categories of characteristics.
Classification by the method of operation
(processing)
1.Analog 2. Digital 3. Hybrid
1. Analog Computers
 Analog computers operate by measuring.
 They deal with continues variables;
 They are special purpose computers.
 They have limited accuracy.
Examples:
• Thermometer • Voltmeter
• Speedometer
04/28/2025 15
 Types of Computers
2. Digital Computers
 It deal with discrete variables.
 They operate by counting rather than
measuring.
Examples:
• Abacus
• Desk & pocket computers
• The general purpose computers.
 Digital computers have higher accuracy and
speed than the analog ones.

04/28/2025 16
 Types of Computers
3. Hybrid computers
 The best features of analog and digital
computers can be combined into a single device
to form a hybrid computer.
Example:
 hospital insensitive (will convert the
patient’s heart function, temp, etc in to
number and supplied to digital comp,)
 Gasoline pomp (will convert the flow of
pumped fuel)

04/28/2025 17
 Types of Computers
Classification by purpose of application
 Classified into two(Special & General)
1. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of
problem,
Example:
 The public telephone box.
 Traffic control system .
 Ticket machines (used in hotel, super market etc.)
 Pocket calculators etc.
 Most Analog computers are special purpose
computers.
04/28/2025 18
 Types of Computers
2. General purpose computers
 They are designed to solve variety of problems
through the use of “store program concept”.
 The same computer can be applied to solve
another set of problem using different program.
 They are more flexible and versatile.
Example:
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Super computers etc.

04/28/2025 19
 Types of Computers
Classification based on their size, cost and
power of execution
• Supercomputers • Mainframe computers
• Minicomputers • Microcomputers
1. Supercomputers
 Supercomputers are the largest, most
powerful, fast, extremely high storage and
most expensive computers.
 computing speeds several times faster than
mainframe computers
 primarily used for processing complex
scientific applications.
 speeds measured in nanoseconds and even
in picoseconds
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 Types of Computers
Some application areas of super computers
 Weapons research (Military Industry)
 Large simulation in Aerospace & Automobile
industry
 Oil exploration in the petroleum industry etc.
2. Main frame computers
 Mainframe computers are large computers
frequently used in large organizations like
banks, insurance companies, hospitals, airline
reservation etc,
 Needs to process large number of transaction
online and require computer system having
massive data storage and processing power.
04/28/2025 21
 Types of Computers
 They are housed in a controlled and central
location with several user terminal connected to
them.
 The main difference between a mainframe and a
super computer is that,
 a super computer channels all its power into
executing a few programs as fast as possible,
where as a mainframe uses its power to
execute many programs concurrently.

04/28/2025 22
 Types of Computers
3. Minicomputers
 They are mainframe having smaller
configuration (small hosts, less storage space
and fewer user terminals)
 They are used in small companies.
 They can be accessed by more than one user at
a time and are used in many application areas.
 They are smaller & less powerful than
mainframe.
 They are large and more powerful than micro
computers
04/28/2025 23
 Types of Computers

4. Microcomputers
 Also known as personal computers (pc).
 Use Microprocessors inside it.
 Generally designed to be used by one person at
a time. (Single user).
 They have limited input and output capacities
and little storage capacity.
 A microcomputer with a powerful
microprocessor & a high quality monitor is
called a workstation.

04/28/2025 24
 Types of Computers
Two physical models of PCs are:
 Desktop model
 Tower model

 Other portable PCs are:-

Laptop, Notebook, palmtop etc.

04/28/2025 25
 Application of Computers
Why we use Computers?
Store and process large amount of
information with high speed and
accuracy.
Transmit information across
continents through communication
medias.
Perform complex mathematical
computations and make
comparisons.
Simulate events;
Monitor ongoing industrial
operations;
Perform repetitive processes great
04/28/2025 26
 Application of Computers
The main areas of computer
applications
IN OFFICES: - Type writers are
being replaced by computers.
IN EDUCATION: - Computers are
widely used in educational
fields; for instruction and
administration /Interactive
education/
 CAL-Computer Aided Learning
 CAI-Computer Assisted Instruction
IN LBRARIES 04/28/2025 27
 Application of Computers
IN COMMUNICATION:-
Computers can be used in
different ways for
communication purpose
between users. This can
include:
- Fax- hard copy - Electronic mail -
Internet
IN RESEARCH
IN BUSINESS
IN MANUFACTURING
Computers can be used in
production process, from the design
stage to the manufacturing stage.
04/28/2025 28
 Application of Computers

IN MEDICINE E.g. telemedicine

04/28/2025 29
CHAPTER
TWO

04/28/2025 30
 Components of a Computer System
A computer system composed of Computer
hardware and Computer software.
Computer Hardware
 The physical components which we can touch
and see.
We can further classify the hardware as follows:
Input devices
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Memory Unit (Primary memory/Main memory) Storage unit
Secondary storage devices
Output devices.

04/28/2025 31
Components of a Computer System

Basic organization of a computer system

04/28/2025 32
 Components of a Computer System
1. Input Devices
 Input is the process of giving or inserting data
and instructions to the computer system.
 Functions of input devices are:
 It accepts (read) instructions and data from the
outside world
 It converts these instructions and data into
computer acceptable form.
Examples of input devices:-
• Keyboard • Mouse
• Scanner • Light pen
• Microphone • Bar code reader
• Voice synthesizer • Touch Screen etc.
04/28/2025 33
 Components of a Computer System
2.The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 It is the main component of a computer.
 Once the information is entered into the computer by the input device, the
processor processes it.
 The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control center of the
computer.
 It first fetches instructions from memory and then interprets them so as to know
what is to be done.
 If required, data is fetched from memory or input device.
 There after CPU executes or performs the required computation, and then either
stores the output or displays it on the output device.
 The CPU has three main components, which are responsible for different functions:
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers
04/28/2025 34
 Components of a Computer System
1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
 It performs mathematical calculations and takes logical
decisions.
 Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
 Logical decisions involve the comparison of two data items to see
which one is larger or smaller or equal.
2. The Control Unit
 It coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of the CPU.
 controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also
input/output units.
 It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in
the program.
 It decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control
signals to input/output devices until the required operation is done
properly by ALU and memory. 04/28/2025 35
 Components of a Computer System
3. Memory Registers
A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU.
These are used to store the data, which is directly used
by the processor.
Registers can be of different sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit
and so on) and each register inside the CPU has a
specific function like :
o storing data
o storing an instruction
o storing address of a location in memory etc.

04/28/2025 36
 Components of a Computer System
Memory Unit (Primary Memory)
 Directly accessible by the control unit and ALU.
 The main memory has two parts.
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
 ROM (Read only Memory)
RAM is:-Small in storage capacity
- Fast in processing speed
- Volatile
- Expensive in price.
ROM is:- non-volatile
-permanent data storage
- typically used to store the computer’s BIOS (basic
input/output system), which contains the instructions for booting
the computer,
- as well as used to store firmware for other hardware devices.37
 Components of a Computer System
Secondary storages:
 Are non-volatile, they store data and information
permanently,
 Are cheap or low in cost,
 Operating speed far slower than the primary
storage.
 Store large amount of information.
Example : Types of magnetic disks
Floppy disk
Hard disk
Types of optical disks
CD-R
CD-RW
DVD R/RW 04/28/2025 38
 Components of a Computer System
Output Devices
 Output is computer produced text, graphics, or
sound in hard-copy or soft-copy format that can
be used by people.
 Output device- is an electromechanical device
that accepts data from a computer and translates
them into a form suitable for use by the user.
Examples of output device are:
-Printers -Monitors (screens)
-Speakers -Plotters ,etc

04/28/2025 39
 Components of a Computer System
Computer system bus
 is the method by which data is communicated between
all the internal pieces of a computer.
 It connects the processor to the RAM, to the hard
drive, to the video processor, to the I/O drives, and to
all the other components of the computer.
 There are three types of buses in a computer, which all
flow together.
 data bus allows data to flow between devices;
 address bus tells devices where the data should go or
is coming from.
 control bus coordinates activity between various
devices to prevent data collisions. 04/28/2025 40
 Computer Software Components
 Software is a set of instruction or programs that
order the hardware what to do or to do something
 Program is a finite set of instructions (steps) that
the computer follow to perform a given job.
 Software also includes documentations, rules and
operational procedures.
 It is an essential component of the computer
system. Without the software, the computer
hardware cannot solve our problems.
 Software acts as intermediate b/n
USER
the user and the electronic components
Software
of the computer.
Hardware
04/28/2025 41
 Computer Software Components
Computer software is classified into two major class
 System Software
 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Driver
 Application Software
 General Purpose Software
 Customize Software
 Utility Software

04/28/2025 42
 Computer Software Components
Computer software is classified into two major class
1. System software 2. Application software
1.

04/28/2025 43
 Computer Software Components
 The important categories of system software are:
1. Operating System:
 It is the main program of a computer system.
 When the computer system ON it is the first software that
loads into the computer’s memory.
 Basically, it manages all the resources such as
computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc
 it provides an interface to the user, which helps the user
to interact with the computer system.
 It also provides various services to other computer
software.
 Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS,
Microsoft Windows, Android etc.
04/28/2025 44
 Computer Software Components
 The important categories of system software are:
2. Language Processor:
As we know that system software converts the
human-readable language into a machine language
and vice versa.
So, the conversion is done by the language
processor.
It converts programs written in high-level
programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python,
etc(known as source code), into sets of instructions
that are easily readable by machines(known as
object code or machine code).
04/28/2025 45
 Computer Software Components
 The important categories of system software are:
3. Device Driver:
 is a program or software that controls a device and helps
that device to perform its functions.
 Every device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a
driver to connect with the computer system eternally.
 So, when you connect a new device with your computer
system, first you need to install the driver of that device so
that your operating system knows how to control or
manage that device.

04/28/2025 46
 Computer Software Components
Application Software
 Software that performs special functions or provides
functions that are much more than the basic operation
of the computer is known as application software.
 Or in other words, application software is designed to
perform a specific task for end-users.
 It is a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill
end-users’ requirements.
 It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database
management, inventory, payroll programs, etc.

04/28/2025 47
 Computer Software Components
 There are different types of application software and those
are:
General Purpose Software:
 This type of application software is used for a variety of
tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only.
For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
Customized Software:
 This type of application software is used or designed to
perform specific tasks or functions or designed for specific
organizations.
 For example, railway reservation system, airline reservation
system, invoice management system, etc.
.
04/28/2025 48
 Computer Software Components
Utility Software:
 This type of application software is used to support the
computer infrastructure.
 It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains
the system, and take care of its requirements as well.
 For example, antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk
repair, disk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer,
etc.

04/28/2025 49
CHAPTER
Three
Data Representation
Method

04/28/2025 50
 Data Representation Method
 A word in the memory of computer can represent
character data or numeric data.
 When we say character data they are letters and
digits (A-Z or a-z or 0-9), special symbols such
as ?,*,+ … and control characters which used to
control devices.
 But since computers is an electronic device which
understands electrical signal there is no letter,
symbol or number inside the computer.
 The most elementary form to organize data in an
electronic device is in the form of a code which
utilizes the “ON” & “OFF” states of electric
switches. (current & no current states)
04/28/2025 51
 Data Representation Method
 An electronic devices has similarity with the binary number
system in that both represent only two elementary states.
 Therefore binary number system is a convenient way to
represent data in a computer system.
 An “ON” corresponds to a 1 and “OFF” corresponds to a 0.
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of a
current and “OFF” is represented by non existence of
current.
 On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by
changing the polarity on the disk’s surface. of magnetized
particles

04/28/2025 52
 Data Representation Method
Number Systems
Bits bytes and words
 The smallest quantity of information that can be stored and
manipulated by a computer is the bit.
 Bit stands for binary digit meaning a 0 or 1.
 A group of bits that is stored or retrieved from the computer
memory is called a word which is the basic unit of
information.
 Words are usually partitioned into a group of eight bits
called bytes. The number of bits in a word is the length of
the word.
 Typical word lengths are 8, 16, and 32 bits.
 Most common number system :Decimal, Binary, Octal,
04/28/2025 53
Cont’d…
 Decimal number system is important because it is
universally used to represent quantities outside a
digital system.
 Decimal system uses numbers from 0 to 9. This is to

the base 10.

 Binary numbers are based on the concept of ON or

OFF.
 Binary number system has a base of 2.
 Its two digits are denoted by 0 & 1 and are called

bits.
.
04/28/2025 54
cont’d…
 Octal Number system uses exactly eight symbols
0,1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7. i.e., it has a base of 8.
 Each octal digit has a unique 3 bit binary representation.

 Hexadecimal number system is to the base 16. It spans from

0 to 9 and then A to E.
 In hexadecimal system A,B,C,D,E and F represents
10,11,12,13,14 and 15, i.e., it has a base of 16. Hexadecimal
numbers are more convenient for people to recognize and
interpret than the long strings of binary numbers

04/28/2025 55
Conversion of Number System
 The right most bit is called Least Significant Bit (LSB)
and left Most Bit is called Most Significant Bit
(MSB).
 There are many methods or techniques which can be

used to convert numbers from one base to another.

 We'll demonstrate here the following −
 Decimal to Other Base System
 Other Base System to Decimal
 Other Base System to Non-Decimal

04/28/2025 56
Decimal to Other Base System

 Steps
 Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by

the value of the new base.

 Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost

digit (least significant digit) of new base number.

 Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the

new base.
 Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next

digit (to the left) of the new base number.

 Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left,

until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.

04/28/2025 57
cont’d…
Example
 Decimal Number: (29)
10 calculating Binary
Equivalent
Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 2|29 14 1

Step 2 2|14 7 0

Step 3 2|7 3 1

Step 4 2 |3 1 1

Step 5 2|1 0 1

04/28/2025 58
cont’d…
 Decimal to Octal:-ddecimal numbers can be converted
to octal by repeated division of the number by 8 while
recording the remainder.

04/28/2025 59
Other Base System to Decimal System
 Steps
 Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of

each digit (this depends on the position of the digit and

the base of the number system).
 Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step

1) by the digits in the corresponding columns.

 Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The

total is the equivalent value in decimal.

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cont’d…
Example: Binary Number − 111012
calculating Decimal equivalent
Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (1 × 22)

+ (0 × 21) + (1 × 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

04/28/2025 61
cont’d…
 Octal Number (25)8 (x)2
Step 1 Convert to decimal
Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 × 81) + (5 × 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5 )10

Step 3 258 2110

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cont’d…
 Step 2 − Convert Decimal to Binary
Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 2| 21 10 1

Step 2 2 |10 5 0

Step 3 2|5 2 1

Step 4 2|2 1 0

Step 5 2|1 0 1

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 Binary Arithmetic

 Computer understands only the language of binary

numbers. Therefore, the machine performs what is called
binary arithmetic (binary computation).
 Binary addition
There are four steps in binary addition
◦0+0=0
◦0+1=1
◦1+0=1
◦ 1 + 1 = 0 (carry 1 to the next significant bit)
Example 11000111 + 1100011

04/28/2025 64
cont’d…
 Binary Subtraction
◦0–0=0
◦ 0 – 1 = 1, borrow 1 from the next more significant bit
◦1–0=1
◦1–1=0
◦ Example
110111- 101110

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Representation Of Negative Numbers

There are different ways of representing negative

numbers in a computer.
Sign- magnitude representation
 In signed binary representation, the left-most bit is

used to indicate the sign of the number.

 Traditionally, 0 is used to denote a positive number

and 1 is used to denote a negative number.

 In a 5- bit representation we use the first bit for sign

and the remaining 4- bits for the magnitude.

04/28/2025 66
Cont’d ….
 So using this 5 bit representation the range of number that can
be represented is from -15 (11111) to 15(01111)
 In the binary number system there are two types of

complements, 1’s complement and 2’s complement.

 To represent a negative binary number 2’s complement is most

widely used. To understand 1’s and 2’s complement in the

binary number system one should first understand 9’s and 10’s
complements in the decimal number system
9’complement:
 To form the 9’s complement of decimal number each

digit of a decimal number is subtracted from 9. The

result so obtained is known as 9’s complement of the number.

04/28/2025 67
Cont’d…
Ex: Find 9’s complement of decimal number 37(10)
Sol : 37(10) = 9’s complement ?
9’s complement of 37 is 99 – 37 = 62.
Like that…3977(10) = 9’s complement ?
9’s complement of 3977 is 9999 – 3977 = 6022.
10’s complement :
 The 10’s complement of a decimal number is equal to the 9’s

complement of the number plus 1.

10’s complement of 37 is 99 – 37 = 62 +1 = 63.

04/28/2025 68
Cont’d… …
1’s complement
 The 1’s complement of binary number is similar to 9’s

complement in the decimal system. To get 1’s

complement of a binary number each bit of the binary
number is subtracted from 1.
 The 1’s complement of 01 is 10. Thus we can see that

the 1’s complement of a binary number can be obtained

by simply changing each bit 1 to 0 and 0 to 1.
Ex1 : Find 1’s complement of 1100101
The 1’s complement is 0011010
Ex2: +2 is 00000010
-2 is 11111101
04/28/2025 69
Cont’d… …
2’s Complement:
 The 2’s complement of the binary system is similar to

10’s complement in the decimal system.

 Thus the 2’s complement of a binary number is equal

to the 1’s complement of the number plus one.

04/28/2025 70
Cont’d… …
Binary Subtraction using 2’s Complement
 The addition of 2’s complement of a number is

equivalent to the subtraction of the number.

Example 1: Subtract 0010(2) from 0101(2) i.e.., subtract
2(10) from 5(10)
 Ordinary binary subtraction

04/28/2025 71
Representation of number as an integer
 When an integer binary number is positive, the sign
is represented by 0 and the magnitude by a positive
binary number.
 When the number is negative, the sign is represented

by 1 but the rest of the number maybe represented in

one of three possible ways:
Signed magnitude representation
Signed 1’s complement representation
Signed 2’s complement representation

04/28/2025 72
Cont’d… …
 The negative number is represented in either the 1’s or 2’s
complement of its positive value.
 It’s customary to use 0 for the + sign and 1 for the –sign.

Therefore -001, -010 and -011 are coded as 1001, 1010 and
1011.
 Sign –magnitude numbers are easy to understand, but they

require too much hardware for addition and subtraction. It

has led to the widespread use of complements for binary
arithmetic.
For instance, if A = 0111  The 1’s complement
is Ā = 1000

04/28/2025 73
Example: Consider the signed number 14 stored in an 8
bit register.
 +14 is represented by a sign bit of 0 in the leftmost

position followed by the binary equivalent of 14 

00001110.
 Note that each of the eight bits of the register must

have a value and, therefore, 0’s must be inserted in

the most significant positions following the sign bit.

04/28/2025 74
 The 2’s complement is defined as the new word
obtained by adding 1 to 1’s complement. As an
equation
A ‘ = Ā + 1 Where A ‘ = 2’s
complement
Ā = 1’s complement
Here are some examples. If A = 0111
The 1’s complement is Ā = 1000
In terms of a binary the 2’s complement is the next
reading after the 1’s complement.

04/28/2025 75
Coding Methods

 It is possible to represent any of the character in our

language in a way that a series of electronic
switches in arranged manner.
 This switch arrangements can therefore be coded as
a series of equivalent arrangements of 0’s & 1’s
(bits).
 There are different coding systems that convert one
or more character sets in to computer codes.
 Some of them are: 1. EBCDIC,
 2. BCD
 3. ASCII-7 & ASCII-8.

04/28/2025 76
 Data Representation Method
 In each case the character set group in to zones &
digits.
 Zones:- group characters together to make the
data process easier.
 Digit Code:- used to identify the individual
character with in each zone.
BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
 BCD is one of the early memory codes.
 There are two types of BCD coding techniques.
 BCD (4 bits)
 BCD (6 bits)

04/28/2025 77
 Data Representation Method
BCD (4 bits)
 It is based on the idea of converting each digit of a
decimal number into its binary equivalent rather
than converting the entire decimal value in to
equivalent binary form. Decimal BCD
Digits Equivalent
0 0000
Example:- 1 0001

To represent 2l9 using 4 bit BCD 2 0010

3 0011
21910= 0010 0001 1001 in BCD
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
04/28/2025 78
 Data Representation Method
 But 4 bits can only represent 24 (16 characters)
and also the 4 bits BCD uses only 10 of them.
(from 0000-1001)
 Because 4 bits are insufficient to represent
various characters, the 4 bits BCD are used to
represent only decimal numbers.
BCD (6 bits)
 It uses 6-bits to code a Character (2 for zone bit
and 4 for digit bit)
 It can represent 26 = 64 characters (10 digits, 26
capital characters and some other special
characters).
04/28/2025 79
 Data Representation Method
BCD Coding Sample E.g.
BCD code BCD code
charact Zone Digi charact Zon Digit
er t er e

A-I 3 1-9 F 11 0110

J-R 2 1-9 L 10 0011
S-Z 1 2-9 T 01 0011
EBCDIC
0-9 0 0-9 8 00 1000
 Pronounced as “Eb-See-Dick” and stands for
Extended binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.
 Mostly used by IBM Mainframe model and in
similar machines produced by other manufacturers.
 It is an 8-bits coding scheme (4 bits for zone and 4
bits for digit).
04/28/2025 80
 Data Representation Method
 It accommodates to code 28 or 256 different
characters (00000000 – 11111111).
 It is a standard coding scheme for the large
computers.
EBCDIC Coding Sample E.g.
EBCDIC code EBCDIC
character charact code
Zone Digit
er Zon Digit
A-I 12 1-9 e
J-R 13 1-9
B 1100 0010
S-Z 14 2-9
M 1101 0100
a-i 8 1-9
Z 1110 1001
j-r 9 1-9
b 1000 0010
s-z 10 2-9
j 1001 0001
0-9 15 0-9
y 1010
04/28/2025
1000 81
 Data Representation Method
ASCII-7
 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for
Information Interchange.
 Widely used before launching of ASCII-8.
 Uses 7 bits to represent a character(3 bits for zone
bit and 4 bits for digit).
 With the seven bits, 27 ( or 128) different
characters can be coded (0000000-1111111).
ASCII-7 Coding Sample E.g.
ASCII code ASCII code
charact Zon Digit charact Zon Digit
er e er e

0-9 3 0-9 0 011 0000

A-O 4 1-15 L 10004/28/2025
1100 82
 Data Representation Method
ASCII-8
 Also referred as Extended ASCII.
 Is the most widely used type of coding scheme for
Micro Computer system.
 Uses 8-bits to represent alphanumeric characters
(4 bits for zone and 4 bits for digit).
 With the eight bits, 28 ( or 256) different characters
can be coded (00000000-11111111).
ASCII-8
ASCII-8 Coding ASCII-8 Sample E.g. charact code
charact code
er er
Zone Digi Zon Digit
t e

0-9 3 0-9 0 0011 0000

A-O 4 1-15 L 0100 1100

P-Z 5 1-10 T 04/28/2025
0101 010083
 Units of Data Representation
 Their is a Unit for the data to store, process or
communicate with in the computer system.
 The units from the smallest to the largest are
called bit, byte and word.
 This units are based on the binary number system.
Bit
 Bit stands for binary digits.
 Bits are the smallest units and can convey only
two possible states 0 or 1.
 A bit is a single element in the computer, on a disk
that stands for either “ON” indicating 1 or “OFF”
indicating 0.
04/28/2025 84
 Unit of Data Representation
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the
existence of current and “OFF” is represented by
the non-existence of current. On a magnetic disk,
the same information is stored by changing the
polarity or magnetized particles on the disk’s
surface.
Byte
 It is a group of bits used to represent a symbol.
 It is the “basic unit of data representation” in the
computer system.
 The term byte is commonly used to mean an 8 bit
byte.
04/28/2025 85
 Unit of Data Representation
 Since each bit has two states and there are 8 bits
in a byte, the total amount of data that can be
represented is 28 or 256 possible combinations.
 Each byte can represent a character. (a character
is either a letter, a number or a special symbol
such as +,-,?,*,blank space, $, etc.)
 A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in
the computer memory, processing unit, external
storage and during communication.

04/28/2025 86
 Unit of Data Representation
 If the computer memory is 524288 byte, this is
expressed in short by saying 512KB, where KB
stands for kilobyte.
1 Kilobyte (1KB) is 210 or 1024 bytes.
1 Megabyte (MB) is 220 bytes or 210 kilobytes.
1 Gigabyte (GB) is 230 bytes or 220 kilobytes.

Word
 A combination of bytes, then form a “word”.
 Word refers the number of bits that a computer
process at a time or a transmission media
transmits at a time.

04/28/2025 87
 Unit of Data Representation
 Although bytes can store or transmit information,
the process can even be faster if more than one
byte is processed at a once;
 A word can contain one, two, three or four bytes
based on the capacity of the computer.
 Word length is usually given in bits.
 We say that a computer is an 8-bits, a 16 bit, a 32
bit or a 64 bit computer to indicate that the amount
of data it can process at a time.
 When the word length is larger a computer will
became more powerful and faster.

04/28/2025 88
CHAPTER
Four

04/28/2025 89
Data communication And Networking

Communication
 It is a process of transferring ideas,
information and message b/n entities.
 We do have three kinds of

communication
These are: 1. Human to human
2. Human to
computer
3. computer to
computer
04/28/2025 90
There are three basic elements of communication
1. source(Sender):a device to send data.
2. Media(channel): a communication medium over
which data is sent.
3. Destination(receiver): a device to receive the sent
data.
sender Encoder Transmission Decoder Destination
/channel

There are two types of transmission

Analog Transmission:-continuous sine wave.
Digital transmission:- discrete/discontinuous on
& off electronic pulses.

04/28/2025 91
Data Transmission
It is digital computer communication with digital
signal.(the “on” pulse is represented as 1 bit and
the “off” pulse is represented as o bit)
Data is transmitted as a series of character or block
of character.(asynchronous & Synchronous)
Modes of Data Transmission
Their are three types of communication channels/
modes of communication.
a. Simplex
b. Half-duplex
c. full-duplex

04/28/2025 92
A. Simplex: It is takes place in only one direction.
E.g. Radio, TV broadcasting.
 The device at either end is ether send only or

receive only. Sender Receiver

B. Half-Duplex: it is a transmission of data in

both direction but only in one direction at a time.
This is a good for transmissions in which case
the receiver has to acknowledge that it has
received the message back to the sender.
E.g. A talk-back radio Sender Receiver

C. Full-Duplex: it allow transmission of data

both direction simultaneously. E.g. Mobil,
telephone Sender Receiver

04/28/2025 93
Speed of Data Transmission
 Bits per second (band) is the standard
measure used to express the speed of
transmission in a given medium.
Bandwidth:- is the difference b/n the
highest and the lowest frequencies that
can be transmitted down a single line.
 Various media of communication can

be described in terms of bandwidth.

 The greater the bandwidth the higher

the capacity of the medium expressed

in bits per second. 04/28/2025 94
Transmission Media
 It
is the physical pathway of data b/n sender
and receiver.
Cable Transmission
1. Twisted pair cable:
 Two wires are twisted together to form the

wire type known as twisted pair.

There are two types of twisted pair cables.
A. Unshielded Twisted Pair(UTP)
It has low cable cost.
It has low installation cost
it is high sensitivity to EMI(electro

magnetic interference) 04/28/2025 95

04/28/2025 96
B. Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)
 It has medium cable cost.
 It has moderate installation cost.
 It low EMI sensitivity.
 It has high band width than UTP.

04/28/2025 97
2. Coaxial cable
 It has a single copper conductor at its
center. A plastic layer provides insulation
b/n the copper & the braided metal shield.
 It has a medium cable cost.
 It has a moderate installation cost.
 It has low EMI sensitivity.
 It has high bandwidth than twisted pair.

04/28/2025 98
3.Fiber optics cable
 It transmit in the form light wave instead of
electrical signals through a thin glass.
 It offer very high bandwidth.
 It has high cable cost.
 It has high installation cost.
 It has no EMI sensitivity.
 Fiber optic transmissions are extremely

secure.

04/28/2025 99
 Summary of Cable Characteristics

Cable Cable Installation EMI Data

Type Cost Cost Sensitivity Bandwidth

UTP Lowest Lowest Highest Lowest

STP Medium Moderate Low Moderate

Coax Medium Moderate Low High

Fiber Optic Highest Highest None Very high

04/28/2025 10
0
 Wireless Transmission
I. MICROWAVE SYSEMS
 Use of a high-frequency electromagnetic

wave to transmit information.

 Fixed rigidly with a focused beam along

line of sight to receiving antenna.

 It uses repeaters at interval of about 25 to

30kms to overcome problem of line-of-site

& for power amplification of weak signal.
 Electromagnetic wave can not bend or pass

obstacles.

04/28/2025 10
1
II. COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE
 Communication satellite is a micro wave
relay station b/n two or more ground
Stations(earth stations)
 Transmit and receive b/n two randomly
chosen points with in a very large area.
 Data transmission costs an independent of
the distance b/n two points within the
covered area.
 It has enormous data communication
capacity.
 It has Good error detection mechanism.
 Special security measures required to
prevent unauthorized tampering during
broadcast.
 04/28/2025 10
2
Fundamentals of Computer Networking

What is networking?
A computer network is a collection of
computers and other devices that
communicate to share data, hardware,
software, and other resources.
Benefits of Network Computing
 Sharing Information (Or Data)
 Sharing Hardware(Peripheral Devices)
 Sharing Programs/Software
 Centralizing Administration And Support
04/28/2025 10
3
Based on geographical area we will classify the
Network in to three:
1. Local Area Network(LAN):
 Limited geographical area less than two kilometers.
 Inexpensive transition media(coaxial or twisted pairs)
 Good for resource sharing.

E.g. University campus, office, school or a building.

2. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN):
 It covers larger geographical areas such as cities or

school districts.
 Multi-campuses of the university can link their LAN in the

various campuses together to form MAN..

3. Wide Area Network(WAN):
 It covers wider geographical area
 Communication is established through telephone lines,

microwave links, fiber optics or satellite links.

 Interconnection b/n one country to other country.
04/28/2025 10
4
Network Topology

 Topology is the physical arrangements of

computers in a network.
 Frequently used topologies are:

1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Hybrid Topology
1. Bus Topology: is a simplest of all
Topology.
 All
device on the network are
connected to each other though a 04/28/2025 10
5
Advantages of Bus topology

 It is easy to implement.
 Use small amount of cabling.
 It is easy to connect a computer or

peripheral to the BUS.

Disadvantages of Bus topology
A fault on the main highway stops the whole
network.

04/28/2025 10
6
2. Star Topology

 All
the network device are connected each
other through a central concentrator called
HUB.

Advantages of Star Topology

 Easy to add new work stations.
 Centralized management.
 Adding new nodes doesn’t increase

transmissions delay.
 Failure of one computer does not
04/28/2025 10
7
Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Hub failure affects the whole work

station.
 Require more cabling length to

connect to the central HUB from

each office.
3. Ring Topology:
 The ring topology is a physically
closed loop consisting of point-to-
point links.
04/28/2025 10
8
Advantages of Ring Topology

 Simple design requires less cable.

 More reliable than star because

communication is not depend on a

single host computer.
 Each computer act as a Repeater.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 A break in the ring can disable the entire
network.
 Failure on one computer impact the rest

of the network.
 Difficult to trouble shoot. 04/28/2025 10
9
4. Hybrid Topology
 Hybrid topology scheme combines
multiple topologies into one large
topology.
 The hybrid network is common in

large wide-area networks.

 Because each topology has its own

strengths and weaknesses, several

different types can be combined for
maximum efficiency.

04/28/2025 11
0
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 One company can combine the
benefits of several different types of
topologies.
 Workgroup efficiency and traffic can be
customized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 Devices on one topology cannot be

placed into another topology without

some hardware changes.

04/28/2025 11
1
INTERNET

04/28/2025 11
2
The Internet
 Internet is a huge computer network linking
together with millions of smaller networks in all
over the world.
 It is a "network of networks" that consists of

millions of smaller domestic, academic,

business, and government networks, which
together carry various information and
services, such as:-
Electronic mail,
Online chat,
 File transfer,
The interlinked Web pages and
Other documents of the World Wide Web.
04/28/2025 11
3
Common uses of the Internet
E-mail
 The concept of sending electronic text messages
between parties.
World wide web (WWW)
 Usually called Web.
 Globally connected network contains a number of
interactive web pages.
 Through keyword-driven Internet search using

search engines, like Google, millions of web pages

have easy & instant access to a vast and diverse
amount of online information.
USENET
 04/28/2025 11
4
Remote access
 The Internet allows computer users to connect
to other computers and information stores
easily, wherever they may be across the world.
 They may do this with or without the use of

security, authentication and encryption

technologies, depending on the requirements.
File transfer protocol (FTP)
 It
helps to transfer files and programs from
one system to another.
 Using FTP programs we can upload or

download files. But to do this there should

04/28/2025 11
5
File sharing
A computer file can be E-mailed to customers,
colleagues and friends as an attachment.
 It can be uploaded to a Web site, FTP server or

Shared location for easily download by the

others.
Video Conferencing
 Video conferencing means making a
conference on the Internet by individuals who
live in different locations.
 This takes place at the same time in different

location.
 It is similar to conference in a hall except they
04/28/2025 11
6
Search Engine (E.g. Yahoo, Google… )
It is an information retrieval system designed
to help find information stored on different
computer through the World Wide Web.
 The search engine allows one to ask for

content meeting specific criteria.

E-commerce
 It is a large Internet marketing.
 some of the biggest companies today have

grown by taking advantage of the efficient

nature of low-cost advertising and commerce
through the Internet.

04/28/2025 11
7
Computer Virus
 It is a computer program that can copy itself
and infect a computer without permission or
knowledge of the user.
 They are deliberately created by programmers,

or by people who use virus creation software.

 A virus can only spread from one computer to

another when:-
A user sends it over the network,
A user carry it on a removable medium
such as a floppy disk, CD, or USB drive.
 viruses can spread to other computers by
infecting files on a network file system.
04/28/2025 11
8
 There are different kinds of viruses like:
 Warms,
Trojan horses,
Boot sector viruses,
Email viruses,
Memory resident viruses and
Micro viruses.
 Each of them has their own characteristics such as:
A worm can spread itself to other computers
without needing to be transferred as part of a host.
and
A Trojan horse is a file that appears harmless until
executed.
04/28/2025 11
9
Virus prevention
 Purchase an anti virus program that runs as
you boot or work your computer and update it
frequently.
 Execute only programs of which you are

familiar as to their origin.

 Load only software from original disks or CD’s.

Pirated or Copied software is always a risk for

a virus.
 Programs sent by email should always be

suspicious.

04/28/2025 12
0
Virus removal
 One possibility on Windows XP is a
tool known as System Restore, which
restores the registry and critical
system files to a previous
checkpoint.
 There are so many anti-virus

software in the computer market

that we can use to remove virus
from an infected file. MacAfee, Dr.
Solomon, Norton etc
 Operating system re-installation.
04/28/2025 12
1