DBM20083-

DISCRETE
C h a p t e
MATHEMATICS r 1
Chapter 1: Basic Logic and
Proofs
1.1 Derive Propositional Logic
1.1.1 Define the purpose of proposition logic
1.1.2 Carry out the formulae in proposition logic
1.1.2a Negation
1.1.2b Conjuction
1.1.2c Disjunction
1.1.2d Conditional
1.1.2e Biconditional
1.1.2f Tautology
1.1.3 Identify the compound proposition
1.1.4 Construct the truth table
1.1.1 Define the purpose of
proposition logic
A proposition (or statement) is a sentence that is either
True or False.
• Letters are used to denote propositional variables.
Example: p, q, r, s, …
• The truth valueof a proposition
• True proposition (T)
• False proposition (F)
 Examples:

Proposition: Non-proposition:
• 5+3=8 True • Where do you live Question
• 10 / 2 = 4 False • Please answer the question
• 5 is an even number correctly Instruction
• Today is Wednesday • x < 10
Unknown value of
x
Exercise a
Which of these sentences are proportions? What are
the truth values of those that are propositions?

• Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia.

• 8 + 2 = 10
• -48 < -47
• Do you want to go to a cinema?
• Answer this question.
• x + 2 = 18
• Today is Monday.
• Move this table to the other room
 1.1.2 CARRY OUT THE
FORMULA IN PROPOSITION
LOGIC
Connectives in Proposition
Logic

Conjunctio Conditional Disjunction Biconditiona Negation

n l
p∧ p→ p∨q p↔ ¬
q q q p
Conjunction p ∧ q (READ AS p AND
q) Example:
p q p∧q
p:5 + 3 = 8
T T T q:A decade is 10 years.

p∧q
T F F 5 + 3 = 8 and a decade is 10 years.
F T F Another answer:
p∧q
F F F 5 + 3 = 8 but a decade is 10 years.
Exercise B
Determine whether the statements are true (T) or
false (F).

• 3 + 2 = 5 and 4 + 4 = 8
• Changlun is in Perlis and Alor Setar is in Kedah.
• −48 < −47 and 25 + 3 = 38
• Duck has 4 legs and cat has wings.
• 4x + 3x = 5x and
Disjunction p ∨ q (READ AS p OR q)

p q p∨q
Example:
T T T p:5 + 3 = 8
q:A decade is 10 years.
T F T
p∨q
F T T 5 + 3 = 8 or a decade is 10 years.

F F F
Exercise C
Determine whether the statements are true (T) or
false (F).

• 3 + 2 = 5 or 4 + 4 = 8
• Changlun is in Perlis or Alor Setar is in Kedah.
• −48 < −47 or 25 + 3 = 38
• Duck has 4 legs or cat has wings.
• 4x + 3x = 5x or
Negation ¬p (READ AS NOT P)

Example:
p ¬p Write the negation for each of the
following propositions.
(a) 5 + 3 = 8
T F (b) A decade is 10 years.

Answer:
(a) 5 + 3 ≠ 8
F T (b) A decade is not 10 years.
Exercise D
What is the negation of each of these propositions?

• Today is Tuesday.
• China is in Asia
• 2+1=3
• All kittens are cute.
• No prime number is even.
• Some cookies are sweet.
• Every lawyer uses logic.
• No bullfrog has lovely eyes.
Conditional p → q (READ AS IF p,
THEN q)
p q p→q
Example:
T T T p: I do my homework.
q: I get my allowance.
T F F
p→q
F T T If I do my homework, then I get an
allowance.
F F T
 Another ways to express
conditional statement:

• If p, q
• p is sufficient for q
• q if p
• q when p
• a necessary condition for q is p
p\to q

Exercise E
Let p be “ It is cold” and q be “ It is raining”. Give a
simple sentence which describes each of the
following statements:

• p→q
• q → ¬p
• ¬q → ¬p
Biconditional p ↔ q(READ AS p IF and
only IF q)
p q p↔q
Example:
T T T p: You passed the Discrete
Mathematics exam.
T F F q: You scored 40% or higher.

F T F p↔q
You passed the Discrete mathematics
F F T exam if and only if you scored 40%
or higher.
 Another ways to express
biconditional statement:

• p is necessary and sufficient for q

• if p then q, and conversely
• p iff q
Exercise F
Let p be “ It is cold” and q be “ It is raining”. Give a
simple sentence which describes each of the
following statements:

• p↔q
• q ↔ ¬p
Exercise G (Question 1)
Which of these sentences are propositions? State the
truth value of those that are propositions.

• If it snows, then the schools are closed.

• x + 2 is positive.
• Take the umbrella with you.
• No prime number is even.
• A triangle is not a polygon. (*polygon is a
closed path)
Exercise G (Question 2)
Let p and q be the propositions
p: Andy is going to Brunei
q: Andy is having a holiday.
Express each of these propositions as an English
sentence.

• ¬p
• q ∨ ¬p
• ¬p ∧ ¬q
• p↔q
Exercise G (Question 3)
Represent the sentences below as propositional
expressions:

• Tom is a math major but not computer science

major.
• You can either stay at the hotel and watch TV or
you can go to the museum
• If it is below freezing, it is also snowing.
Exercise G (Question 4)
Determine whether each of these statements is true
or false.

• If 1 + 1 = 2, then 2 + 2 = 5
• If monkeys can fly, then 1 + 1 = 3
• 2 + 2 = 4 if and only if 1 + 1 = 2
• 0 > 1 if and only if 2 > 1
PAST YEAR QUESTIONS SESI
II: 2021/2022
QUESTION 1
Identify each of the following sentence whether a
proposition or not and state the truth value.
a) Is 2 a positive number? (1 mark)
b) A triangle is a three-sided polygon (2 marks)
c) 4 + 9 > 9 (2 marks)
PAST YEAR QUESTIONS SESI
II: 2021/2022
QUESTION 2
Let p denote “ John is rich” and q denote “ John is happy”.
Write each statement in symbolic form using p and q.

a) If John is rich, then he is unhappy.

b) John is neither rich nor happy.
c) It is necessary to be poor in order to be happy.
d) John is unhappy if and only is he is poor.
e) To be poor is to be unhappy.
(10
marks)
1.1.4 Method for
constructing truth tables
A logical statement/proposition having n component
statements will have 2ⁿ rows in its truth table.

Example:
If we have two propositions (p and q), therefore, we will have
2² = 4 rows.
If we have three propositions (p, q and r), therefore we will
have 2³ = 8 rows.
 Examples:
Two Three
propositions p q
propositions r
p q
T T T
T T T T F
T F T
T F T F F
F T T
F T F T F
F F T
F F F F F
 Example
Construct the truth table for
p ∧ (¬p ∨ ¬q)
Solution
First, we know that there are 2 propositions involve

Therefore, there will be 4 rows in the truth table.

Next, there are brackets and 2 negations

(2 additional columns)
connected with the symbol ∨ (1 additional column)
and the last column is what we need to construct.
Construct the truth table for
p ∧ (¬p ∨ ¬q)

p∧(¬p∨¬q
p q ¬p ¬q ¬p ∨ ¬q
)

T T F F F F

T F F T T T

F T T F T F

F F T T T F
 If p represents the statement 4 > 1, q represent the statement 12 < 9, and r
represent 0 < 1, decide whether the following statement is TRUE or FALSE.
(¬p ∧ r) V (¬q ∧ p)

(¬p∧r)∨(¬q∧p
p q r ¬p ¬q ¬p∧r ¬q∧p The
)
truth
T T T F F F F F
value
T T F F F F F F for the
T F T F T F T T state
T F F F T F T T ment
is
F T T T F T F T
TRUE.
F T F T F F F F
F F T T T T F T
F F F T T F F F
Exercise H
Construct the truth table for each of the following:

a) ¬p ∧ q
b) ¬p V q → ¬q
c) p ∧ (¬q V r)
d) ¬p ↔ q V r
 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
Two statement forms are called logically equivalent (≡ ) if and only if they have
same truth value in every possible situation.

Example: Example:
Are the following statements Determine whether the statement
equivalent? forms ¬(p ∧ q) and ¬p ∧¬q are
p ∧ q and q ∧ p logically equivalent or not.
p q p∧q q∧p p q p∧q ¬(p ∧ q) ¬p ¬q
¬p ∧
¬q
T T T T
T T T F F F F
T F F F
T F F T F T F
F T F F
F T F T T F F
F F F F
F F F T T T T
p∧q≡q∧p ¬(p ∧ q) ≢ ¬p ∧
 Logical Equivalence
Given any statement variables p,q and r, a tautology t and a contradiction c, the
following logical equivalence hold:

1. Commutative laws pΛq≡qΛp p V q ≡q V p

2. Associative laws (p Λ q)Λ r ≡ p Λ (q Λ r) (p V q)V r ≡ p V (q V r)
3. Distributive laws p Λ (q V r) ≡ (p Λ q) V (p p V (q Λ r) ≡ (p V q) Λ (p
4. Identity laws p ΛΛtr)≡ p p VVcr)≡ p
5. Negation laws pV¬p≡t pΛ¬p≡c
6. Double negative laws ¬(¬ p) ≡ p
7. idempotent laws pΛp≡p pVp≡p
8. Universal bound laws pVt≡t pΛc≡c
9. De Morgan's laws ¬(p Λ q) ≡¬ p V ¬ q ¬(p V q) ≡¬ p Λ ¬ q
10. Absorption laws p V (p Λ q) ≡ p p Λ (p V q) ≡ p
11. Negation of t and c ¬t≡c ¬c≡t
Exercise I
1. Show that the statements below are logically
equivalent or not.

a) i: ¬(p Λ q)
ii: ¬p V ¬q

b) i: ¬p ↔ q
ii: ¬q ↔ p

2. Use truth tables to show that:

[(p V q) → r ] ≡ [( p → r ) ∧ (q → r)]
PAST YEAR QUESTIONS SESI
II: 2021/2022
QUESTION 1
Show that p → q and ¬p → ¬q are NOT logically
equivalent to each other.
(5 marks)
TAUTOLOGY, CONTRADICTION &
CONTIGENCY
TAUTOLOGY CONTRADICTION
A proposition P (p, q, r, ……) is a A proposition P (p, q, r, ……) is a
tautology if it contains only T in the contradiction if it contains only F in
last column of its truth table. the last column of its truth table. In
In other word they are true for any other words they are false for any truth
truth values of their variables. values of their variables.
p ¬p p V ¬p p ¬p p ∧¬p
T F T T F F
F T T F T F

The proposition p V ¬p is a tautology. The proposition p ∧¬p is a contradiction.

CONTINGENCY
A proposition P (p, q, r, ……) is a contingency if it contains both T and F
in the last column of its truth table.

Example:
p q p∨q

T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F The proposition p ∨ q is a contigency.
Exercise 1J
a) Use the truth table to determine whether the
statement is a tautology, contradiction or
contingency: ((p → q) ∧ p) → q
b) Use a truth table to show that the proposition is
always true: p ∨ (q ∨ ¬p)
c) Determine whether the proposition is tautology
or not: (p → q) ∧ (q → p) ↔ (p → ¬q)
Chapter 1: Basic Logic and
Proofs
1.2 Derive Predicate Logic
1.2.1 Define predicates
1.2.2 State the expression of predicate in a
statement
1.2.3 Identify the compound statement in
predicate logic
1.2.4 Compare the type of quantifier in:
Universal;Existential
1.2.5 Identify the quantified statements
1.2.6 Write a well-formed predicate logic in
English
1.2.7 Transfer the translation with quantifiers
1.2.1 Define predicates
1.2.2 State the expression of
predicate in a statement
•A predicate is a statement that contains variables
(predicate variables) and that may be true or false
depending on the values of these variables.
•P(x) is a predicate.
EXAMPLE
Consider the statement involving variables such as "x > 3".
The statement “x is greater than 3” has two parts:

• The first part, the variable x is the subject of the statement.

• The second part, “is greater than 3” is the predicate of the statement.

We can denote the statement “x is greater than 3” by P(x), where P denotes

the predicate “is greater than 3” and x is the variable.
If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth set of P(x) is the set of all
elements of D that make P(x) true when they are substituted for x. The truth set of
P(x) is denoted { {x ∈ D}│P(x) } which is read “the set of all x in D such that
P(x)".

EXAMPLE
Let P(x) denote the statement "x > 3". What are the truth values of P(4) and P(2)?

Solution:
P(x)= x > 3
Substitute the values given to the predicate;
P(4)= 4 > 3 (TRUE)
P(2)= 2 > 3 (FALSE)
EXAMPLE
Example:
Assume a predicate P(x) that represents the statement x is a prime
number. What are the truth values of P(2), P(3), P(4), P(5), P(6) and P(7)?

Solution:
P(2) (TRUE) since 2 is a prime number
P(3) (TRUE) since 3 is a prime number
P(4) (FALSE) since 4 is not a prime number [4 can be divided by 2)
P(5) (TRUE) since 5 is a prime number
P(6) (FALSE) since 6 is not a prime number [6 can be divided by 2
and 3)
P(7) (TRUE) since 5 is a prime number
Exercise K
1. Let P(x) be the statement “the word x contains the
letter a”. What are these truth values?

a) P(orange)
b) P(lemon)
c) P(false)

2. Let P(x) be the statement “x is the states in Malaysia

that starts with the letter P”. Find the truth set of P(x),
where the domain is all the state in Malaysia.
Exercise K (cont...)
3.Let P(x) be the statement . If the domain
consists of the integers, what are the truth values?
a)P (0)
b)P (1)
c)P (2)
d)P (-1)
1.2.3 Identify the compound
statement in predicate logic.
A predicates can have more arguments which represent the
relations between objects.

Example:
• Older(John, Peter) denotes ‘John is older than Peter’
– this is a proposition because it is either true or false

• Older(x,y) - ‘x is older than y’

– not a proposition, but after the substitution it becomes
one
EXAMPLE
Let Q(x,y) denote ‘x + 5 > y’. Answer all questions below.

Solution:
– Is Q(x,y) a proposition? No (cannot detemine whether it is true or false)
– Is Q(3,7) a proposition? Yes (It is true)
– Is Q(3,y) a proposition? No (cannot detemine whether it is true or false since
y is unknown)
– What is the truth value of:
• Q(3,7) T (True since 3+5 > 7; 8 > 7)
• Q(1,6) F (False since 1+5 > 6; 6 > 6)
• Q(2,2) T (True since 2+5 > 2; 7 > 2)
IMPORTANT
• Statement P(x) is not a proposition since there are more objects it can
be applied to

• This is the same as in propositional logic… But the difference

is:
• Predicate logic allows us to explicitly manipulate and substitute for the
objects
• Predicate logic permits quantified sentences where variables are
substituted for statements about the group of objects
Exercise L
• Let Q(x,y) denote the statement "x=y+3". What are the truth
values of the propositions Q(1,2) and Q(3,0)?

2.Let A(c,n) denote the statement “Computer c is connected to

network n,” where c is a variable representing a computer and n
is a variable representing a network. Suppose that the computer
MATH1 is connected to network CAMPUS2, but not to network
CAMPUS1. What are the truth values of A(MATH1, CAMPUS1) and
A(MATH1, CAMPUS2)?

3.Let Q(x, y, z) denote the statement “”. What is the

truth value of Q(3, 4, 5)? What is the truth value of Q(2, 2, 3)?
1.2.4 COMPARE THE TYPE OF
QUANTIFIER (Universal &
existential)
Universal quantifier (∀x) Existential quantifier (∃x)
• The universal quantification of • The existential quantification
P(x): "P(x) is true for all values of P(x): "There exists an
of x in the domain of element in the domain
discourse." (universe) of discourse such
• The notation ∀ x P(x) denotes the that P(x) is true."
universal quantification of P(x), and • The notation ∃ x P(x) denotes the
is expressed as for every x, P(x). existential quantification of P(x),
• ¬ (∀ x P(x)) write as “It is not and is expressed as there is an x
true that all P(x)” such that P(x) is true.
• ∀ x ¬ P(x) write as “All x are not • ¬ (∃ x P(x)) write as “It is not
P(x)” true that some P(x)”
• ∃ x ¬ P(x) write as “Some x are
not P(x)”
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
The truth value:
(∃ x P(x)) ≡ ∀ x ¬ P(x)
¬ (∀ x P(x)) ≡ ∃ x ¬
P(x)
1.2.5 IDENTIFY THE
QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
Example:
Let D={1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and consider the statement ∀x∈D, . Show
that this statement is true.

Solution:
Check that "x² ≥ x" is true for each individual x in D.
1² ≥ 1 , 2² ≥ 2 , 3² ≥ 3 , 4² ≥ 4 ,
5² ≥ 5
1 ≥1 , 4 ≥2 , 9 ≥3 , 16 ≥ 4 ,
25 ≥ 5
Hence "∀ x ∈ D, " is true.
EXAMPLE
Let P(x) be the statement "x + 1 > x". What is the truth value of the
quantification ∀ x P(x) where the domain consists of all real numbers?

Solution:
Because P(x) is true for all real numbers x, the quantification ∀x P(x) is true.
EXAMPLE
Let Q(x) be the statement "x < 2". What is the truth value of the quantification
∀ x Q(x) where the domain consists of all real numbers?

Solution:
Q(x) is not true for every real number x. Example: Q(3) = 3 < 2 is FALSE.
That is x = 3 is a counterexample for the statement ∀ x Q(x). Thus ∀ x Q(x) is
false.
EXAMPLE
Consider the statement ∀ x ∈ R, . Find a counterexample to show that this
statement is false.

Solution:
Let x= . Then x is in R and ( )² = ≱ . Hence "∀ x ∈ R, "is FALSE.
That is x = is a counterexample for the statement ∀ x ∈ R, .
Thus, ∀ x ∈ R, is false.
EXAMPLE
Consider the statement ∃m ∈ Z such that m²=m. Show that this statement is
true.

Solution:
Observe that 1² = 1. Thus "m² = m" is true for at least one integer m.
Hence "∃m ∈ Z such that m² = m" is TRUE.
1.2.6 WRITE A WELL-
FORMED PREDICATE LOGIC
IN ENGLISH
Example 1:
Let P(x) denotes the statement “x is taking a mathematics
course”. The domain of discourse is the set of all students.
Write each propositions in words.
a) ∀ x P(x)
b) ∃ x P(x)
c) ¬(∃ x P(x))
d) ∀ x ¬P(x)
SOLUTION
• ∀ x P(x)
All students are taking a Mathematics course.

• ∃ x P(x)
Some students are taking a Mathematics course.

• ¬(∃ x P(x))
It is not true that some students are taking a Mathematics course.

• ∀ x ¬P(x)
All students are not taking a Mathematics course.
EXAMPLE 2
Let the universe be the set of airplanes and let F(x,y) denote “x flies faster than
y”. Write each propositions in words.
a)∀ x ∀ y F(x,y)
“Every airplane is faster than every airplane”
b) ∀ x ∃ y F(x,y)
“Every airplane is faster than some airplane”
c)∃ x ∀ y F(x,y)
"Some airplane is faster than every airplane"
d)∃ x ∃ y F(x,y)
"Some airplane is faster than some airplane”
1.2.7 transfer the translation
with quantifiers
Example:
Let P(x) be the statement “x knows kung fu” and Q(x) be the
statement “x knows karate” where the domain consists of all adults
in your neighborhood. Write the following sentences using
predicates, quantifiers and logical connectives.

• There is an adult in your neighborhood who knows kung fu and

karate.
• There is an adult in your neighborhood who knows kung fu but
not karate.
• Every adult in your neighbourhood knows kung fu or karate.
• No adult in your neighbourhood knows kung fu or karate.
SOLUTION
• There is an adult in your neighbourhood who knows kung fu and karate.
∃x(P(x) ∧ Q(x))
• There is an adult in your neighbourhood who knows kung fu but not karate.
∃x(P(x) ∧ ¬Q(x))
• Every adult in your neighbourhood knows kung fu or karate.
∀ x (P(x) ∨ Q(x))
• No adult in your neighbourhood knows kung fu or karate.
∀ x ¬(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) ≡ ¬∃ x (P(x) ∨ ¬Q(x))
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLE
Problem:
Express the statement “Not everybody can ride a bike” as a logical expression.

Solution:
• Let P(x) = “x can ride a bike.”
• The statement “everybody can ride a bike,” can be expressed as ∀ x P(x).
• We want the negation of this, which is ¬∀ x P(x).
• Another way to say this is “There is somebody that cannot ride a bike,”
which can be expressed as ∃ x ¬P(x).
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLE
Problem:
Express the statement “Nobody can fly.” as a logical expression.

Solution:
• Let P(x) = “x can fly.”
• The statement “somebody can fly,” can be expressed as ∃ x P(x).
• We want the negation of this, which is ¬∃ x P(x).
• Another way to say this is “Everybody can not fly,” which can be expressed
as ∀ x ¬P(x).
Exercise M
Translate the specifications into English sentences where P(x) be the predicate
“x must take a discrete mathematics course” and let Q(x) be the predicate “x is
a computer science student”. The universe of discourse for both P(x) and Q(x)
is all students.

(a) ∀ x (Q(x) ⋀ P(x))

(b) ∃ x (P(x) → Q(x))
(c) ¬(∀ x Q(x) → P(x))
Exercise N
Let P(x): 'x likes sport'.
Let Q(x): 'x can speak English’.
The domain for x is the set of all lecturers in Polytechnic.Translate symbolically
the following expressions:
(a) Some lecturers in Polytechnic like sport and can speak English.
(b) Every lecturers in Polytechnic like sport if they cannot speak English.

Let S(x,y) be the predicate “x is expensive than y” and let the universe of
discourse be the set of cars. Express the following in sentences:
(a)∃ x ∃y S(x,y)
(b)∃ x ¬S(x,Mercedes)
(c)¬∀ x ∃y S(x,y)
Chapter 1: Basic Logic and
Proofs
1.3 Demonstrate Proofs
1.3.1 Define theorem and proofs
1.3.2 Identify the logical equivalence rules
1.3.3 Use the rules of inference to validate
arguments:
1.3.2a Modus Ponens
1.3.2b Modus Tollens
1.3.2c Hypothetical syllogism
1.3.2d Disjunctive syllogism
1.3.2e Addition
1.3.4 Utilize the rules of inference
1.3.5 Show the proofs using rules of inference
 • An argument is a sequence of statements.
• In an argument, all statements except the last one are called premises (or
assumptions or hypothesis); the last statement in an argument is called
conclusion.
• Notation: Premises: P₁, . . . Pn; Conclusion: Q.

• In symbolic logic form, we will have

P₁
P₂
…

∴Q
Pₙ

*Note: the three dots symbol ∴ reads: therefore (normally placed just
before the conclusion).
Example
Write in symbolic logic form:
“All women are pretty; Zara is a woman. Therefore, Zara is pretty”.

Solution:
P₁: All women are pretty.

∴Q: Zara is pretty

P₂: Zara is a woman.
 VALIDITY OF ARGUMENT
An argument is said to be valid if Q is An argument which is not valid is called
true whenever all the premises P₁, P₂, …,
Pₙ are true. fallacy.
How to test a given argument for When is an argument not valid
validity:
• Identify the premises and (fallacy)?
conclusion of the argument form. • Whenever at least one “all T”
• Construct a truth table showing
the truth values of all the premises entry for the premises
and the conclusion. corresponds to a “F” outcome
• (Focus only on those entries for
which all premises are T): for the conclusion.
argument is valid if, and only if,
to each T outcome for all
premises corresponds a T
outcome for the conclusion.
Example
Show that the following argument is valid or fallacy.
a) p → q
p
∴q
Solution: PREMISE PREMISE CONCLUSION
p q p→q p q
T T T T T VALID
T F F – ignore! T -
F T T F – ignore! -
F F T F – ignore! -
b) p → q
q→p
∴p V q

Solution: PREMISE PREMISE CONCLUSION

p q p→q q→p p∨q
T T T T T
T F F – ignore! - -
F T T F – ignore! -
INVALID /
F F T T F FALLACY
*REASON:
One “all T” entry for the premises corresponds to a “F” outcome
for the conclusion.
c) p → q V ¬r
q→pΛr
∴p → r
Solution: PREMISE PREMISE CONCLUSION
p q r ¬r q∨¬r p∧r p→q∨¬ q→p∧r p→r
T T T F T T rT T T
T T F T T F T F F
T F T F F T F T T
T F F T T F T T F
F T T F T F T F T
F T F T T F T F T
F F T F F F T T T
INVALID /
F F F T T F T T T FALLACY
d) p V (q V r)
¬r
∴p V q
Solution: PREMISE PREMISE CONCLUSION
p q r q∨r p∨(q∨r) ¬r p∨q
T T T T T F T
T T F T T T T
T F T T T F T
T F F F T T T
F T T T T F T
F T F T T T T
F F T T T F F
F F F F F T F VALID
Exercise 0
Show that the following argument is valid or fallacy.
(a) p → q
q→r
∴p → r

(b) ¬p ∧ q → ¬q

(c) [ ( p ⋁ q ) ⋀ ( ¬p ⋁ r ) ] → ( q ⋁ r )
RULES OF INFERENCE FOR
PROPOSITIONAL
RULE OF INFERENCE LOGIC
TAUTOLOGY NAME
p→q

∴q
p [p Λ (p → q)] → q Modus ponens

p→q
[¬ q Λ (p → q)] → ¬p
∴¬ p
¬q Modus tollens

p→q
[(p → q) Λ (q → r)] → (p → r)
∴p → r
q→r Hypothetical syllogism

pVq
[(p V q) Λ ¬p] → q Disjunctive syllogism
∴q
¬p

p → (p V q)
∴p V q
p Addition
Example
What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
a)Alice is mathematics major. Therefore, Alice is either mathematics major or
a computer science major.
b)If it is raining, then the pool will be closed. It is raining. Therefore, the pool is
closed.
c)If it snows today, then the university will be closed. The university is not
closed today. Therefore, it did not snow today.
d)If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If I stay in the sun too
long, then I will get sunburn. Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will get
sunburn.
Question (A)
Alice is mathematics major. Therefore, Alice is either mathematics major or a
computer science major.

Solution:
Identify the premise:
p: Alice is mathematics major
q: Alice is a computer science major
Check the given statement:

∴p V q (Therefore, Alice is either mathematics major or a computer science major)

p (Alice is mathematics major)

Refer to the rules of inference:

Addition
Question (B)
If it is raining, then the pool will be closed. It is raining. Therefore, the pool is closed.
Solution:
Identify the premise:
p: It is raining
q: The pool is closed
Check the given statement:
p → q (If it is raining, then the pool will be closed)

∴q (Therefore, the pool is closed)

p (It is raining)

Refer to the rules of inference:

Modus ponens
Question (C)
If it snows today,then the university will be closed. The university is not closed
today. Therefore, it did not snow today.
Solution:
Identify the premise:
p: It snows today
q: The university is closed today
Check the given statement:
p → q (If it snows today, then the university will be closed)

∴¬p (Therefore, it did not snow today)

¬q (The university is not closed today)

Refer to the rules of inference:

Modus tollens
Question (D)
If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If I stay in the sun too long,
then I will get sunburn. Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will get sunburn.
Solution:
Identify the premise:
p: I go swimming
q: I will stay in the sun too long
r: I will get sunburn
Check the given statement:
p → q (If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long)

∴p → r (Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will get sunburn)

q → r (If I stay in the sun too long, then I will get sunburn)

Refer to the rules of inference:

Hypothetical syllogism
Example
Test the validity of the following argument :
S₁: If a man is a bachelor, he is unhappy.
S₂: If a man is unhappy, he dies young.
----------------------------------------------------
S : Bachelors die young.
Solution:
Translate the argument into symbolic form ;
p →q

∴p →r
q →r

From the rules of inference table, the argument is hypothetical syllogism. So the
argument is valid. (Construct the truth table to check the validity of the argument)
Solution
PREMISE PREMISE CONCLUSION
p q r q∨r p∨(q∨r) ¬r
T T T T T T
T T F T F F

T F T F T T

T F F F T F
F T T T T T
F T F T F T
F F T T T T
VALID
F F F T T T
Exercise P
Show that the following argument is c) Linda is an excellent swimmer.
valid or fallacy. If Linda is an excellent swimmer, then

∴Therefore, Linda can work as a

a) If daisy is a flower, then daisy is white she can work as a lifeguard.

∴Daisy is white
Daisy is flower
lifeguard.

b) If George does not have eight legs, d) If two sides of a triangle are equal,
then he is not an insect. then the opposite angles are equal.

∴The opposite angles are not equal.

George is not an insect. Two sides of a triangle are not equal.
Therefore, George does have eight legs.
Exercise Q
What rules of inference is used in each of these arguments?
• Steve will work at a computer company this summer.
Therefore, this summer steve will work at a computer
company or he will be a beach bum.
• If I work all night on this homework, then I can answer
all the exercises. If I answer all the exercise, I will
understand the material. Therefore, If I work all night
on this homework, then I will understand the material.
• If it is snows today, the university will close. The
university is not closed today. Therefore, it did not
snow today.
Exercise R
• Test the validity of the following argument by using
truth table. Then, conclude what is the rules of
inference. (6 marks)

S₁: If a man is a bachelor, he is unhappy.

S₂: If a man is unhappy, he dies young.
------------------------------------------------
S: Bachelors die young.