Fuels

Applied Chemistry 1
 What is a Fuel?

◻ Source of heat energy.

◻ Combustible substance which on burning in
presence of oxygen → large amount of heat
used for domestic & industrial purposes.
For e.g. wood, charcoal, coal, kerosene etc.
Fuels are called as Chemical Fuels
Why?
◻ Combustion of these fuels
- a chemical reaction involving the breakage of
bonds of reactants & formation of new bonds in the
products + large amount of heat.
Classification of Fuels
Fuels can be classified on the basis of their
1) Occurrence
2) Physical State
I On the basis of the occurrence, fuels are of two types
A) Primary Fuels:
Occurance in nature as such ie used either without
processing or after little processing which does not
change the chemical composition of the fuel.
Examples: wood, peat, coal, petroleum.
B) Secondary Fuels
◻ Derived by further chemical processing of primary
fuels Example Coke, charcoal, kerosene, coal gas,
producer gas, etc.
II On the Basis of Physical State
Fuels
1. Solid Fuels: Solid in nature. E.g. Wood, peat, lignite.
2. Liquid Fuels: Liquid in nature. E.g. Crude oil.
3. Gaseous Fuels: Gaseous in nature E.g. Natural gas.
Calorific Value (C.V.)
Definition-Total quantity of the heat liberated when a
unit mass of a fuel is burnt completely.
◻ It judges the efficiency of the fuel.

Higher the C.V., Greater is the efficiency of the fuel.

◻ Important characteristics of the fuel.

Units of measurement of the calorific value - same as

the energy.
Units of Calorific Value
1) Calorie:
Defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water through 1degree
centigrade.
1 calorie = 4.185 Joules = 4.185 x 107 ergs
2) Kilocalorie:
Defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of water through 1
degree centigrade.
1Kilocalorie = 1000 cal
 Units of Calorific Value

3) British Thermal Units (BTU):

Defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water through 1 degree
Fahrenheit.
1 BTU = 0.252 kcal
1 kcal = 3.968 BTU
4) Centigrade Heat Unit(C.H.U):
Defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water through 1 degree
centigrade.
1 kcal = 3.968 BTU
Units of Calorific Value
Units of the calorific value for solid and non volatile
liquid fuels used are:
calories/gm , kcal/Kg and BTU/ 1b.

Units of the calorific value for Volatile

liquid and gaseous fuels are:
calories/cm3 , kcal/m3 and BTU / ft3
Types of Calorific Value
Calorific value - two types:
1) Gross Calorific Value (GCV)
2) Net Calorific Value (NCV)

Gross Calorific Value(GCV) is also called

as Higher Calorific Value (HCV)
Net Caloric Value(NCV) is also called as Lower Calorific
Value (LCV)
 Gross Calorific Value
◻ Total amount of heat generated when a unit quantity of
fuel is completely burnt in oxygen and the products of
combustion are cooled down to the room temperature.
Usually, all the fuels have sufficient amount of hydrogen (H).
On combustion H→ H O(steam).
2
On cooling to room temperature
H2O(steam) → H2O(liquid) + latent heat↑
Hence, in the determination of gross calorific value , this
latent heat also gets included.
Therefore, Gross Calorific Value is also called the Higher
Calorific Value.
Net Calorific Value
◻ Total amount of heat generated when a unit
quantity of fuel is completely burnt in oxygen and
the products of combustion are allowed to escape.
Water vapour, formed due to the presence of hydrogen
in the fuel is not condensed and escapes along with
hot combustion gases.
Hence, Net Calorific Value is low.
Therefore, Net Calorific Value is lower than Gross
Calorific Value.
NCV < GCV or LCV < HCV
GCV = NCV + Latent Heat of water vapour
Calorific Value
H2 + ½ O 2 ⴄ H 2 O
Since 1 Part by weightof hydrogen
gives nine parts by weight of water
GCV= NCV + Wt of hydrogen x 9 x Latent heat of steam
NCV = GCV – Wt of hydrogen x 9x 587
OR
LCV = HCV – Wt of hydrogen x 9x 587
Based on the type of fuels, Units can be
calories/gm , kcal/Kg and BTU/ 1b
OR calories/cm3 , kcal/m3 and BTU / ft 3
Determination of the Calorific Value
of Solid and Non-volatile Liquid Fuels

Bomb Calorimeter
Principle:
Known amount of the fuel is
burnt in excess of oxygen → heat liberated
→ known amount of water.

Heat produced by fuel = Heat Gained by water

Bomb Calorimeter

Bomb Calorimeter
Construction of Bomb Calorimeter
1. Steel Bomb:
Stainless Steel container capable of withstanding
pressure of at least 50 atmospheres. Has gas-tight
screw cap or lid.
The has two holes for electrodes and one
oxygen inlet valve.
A small ring is fitted to one of the electrodes which act
as a support for silica crucible.
2. Copper Calorimeter:
Bomb placed in a copper calorimeter with
known amount of water.
Calorimeter has an electrical stirrer & Beckmann
Construction of Bomb Calorimeter
3. Air Jacket & Water Jacket
Copper Calorimeter surrounded by the air jacket
and water jacket - prevent any loss of heat due to
radiation.
4 . Composition and placement of crucible
Fuel is kept in Crucible made up of nickel, or fused
silica.
The crucible is placed inside the
ring attached to one of the electrodes.
 Working of Bomb Calorimeter
Known amount of the given fuel (~ 0.5-1 g) is
taken in the silica crucible supported over the ring.
Piece of fine magnesium wire is tightly stretched across
the electrodes, touching the fuel sample.
The lid of the bomb is tightly screwed and bomb filled
with oxygen at 25 atmospheric pressure.
The bomb is placed inside the copper calorimeter which
contains a known amount of water.
After thorough stirring , initial temperature of water is
noted using Beckmann thermometer (1/100oC)
 Working of Bomb Calorimeter
Electrodes are connected to a 6-volt battery to
complete the circuit .
Fuel in crucible burns → heat ↑.
Heat produced by fuel → transferred to water,
Stirring throughout by electric stirrer.
Maximum ie Final Temperature on
thermometer
recorded.
Time taken to cool the water in the calorimeter from
maximum temperature → room temperature -
noted.
 Calculations
Let , Weight of the fuel sample taken = x g
Weight of water in the calorimeter = W g
Water equivalent of the calorimeter, bomb,
stirrer, thermometer = w g
Initial Temperature of water= t1 o C
Final Temperature of water = t2 o C
Higher or Gross Calorific Value = C cal/g
Heat gained by water= W x ∆t x Specific heat of water
ie Heat gained by water = W (t2-t1) x 1 cal
& Heat gained by calorimeter = w(t2-t1) cal
 Calculations
Heat produced by the fuel = x C cal
Heat produced by the fuel = Heat gained by water +
Heat gained by calorimeter
x C = (W+ w) (t2-t1) cal
C = (W + w)(t2-t1) / x cal/g

Water equivalent ka
weight
 Calculations
Net Calorific Value
Percentage of hydrogen in the fuel = H% or H/100
Weight of water produced from 1g of the fuel = 9H/100 g
(as H2+ 1/2O2 ⴄ H2O
so 2 g of H → 18 g of H O
2
ie 1 g of H → 9 g of H O)
2
Heat liberated during condensation of
steam= 0.09H x 587
cal/g
Net (Lower) Calorific Value= GCV- Latent heat of water
 Corrections in the Formula for
accurate results
1. Fuse wire corrections (F.C.):
Mg wire (for ignition) → heat generated included in the
gross calorific value .
Hence, this amount of heat liberated has to be
subtracted from the total value.
2. Acid Corrections (A.C):
On combustion, Sulphur & Nitrogen (fuel) are oxidised →
their corresponding acids under high pressure &
temperature.
Reactions - Exothermic in nature, heat liberated & passes to atm
Focus on heat from Carbon, so heat ↑ needs to be subtracted.
Corrections in the Formula
3. Cooling Corrections (C.C.):
Heating & cooling are simultaneous processes.
As the Temperature ↑above the room temperature,
there will be loss of heat due to radiation ,
So the Final Temperature recorded slightly <
that actually obtained => Addition of cooling
corrections
Formula becomes:
Gross Calorific Value
C = [{(W+w)(t2-t1+C.C)} - (A.C + F.C)] / (wt. of the fuel)
 Numericals
Q. In a Bomb Calorimeter experiment, the following
data was obtained
Q. Weight of coal = 0.834g,
R. Weight of water taken in the calorimeter = 1365g
S. Water equivalent of the calorimeter = 135g
T. Observed rise in temperature = 3.74oC
U. Calculate GCV and NCV of coal if it contains 8% H
 Sol
Q. Weight of coal xn:= 0.834g,
R. Weight of water taken in the calorimeter W =
1365g
S.
T. Water equivalent
Observed rise in temperature (T -Tw) == 3.74
of the calorimeter
2 1
135g
o

C
U. = [(1365+135)(3.74)]0.834
GCV = [(W+w)(T2-T1)]/x
= 6726.6cal/g
%H = 8
NCV = GCV – 0.09HL
= 6726.6 – 0.09 x 8 x
587
= 6303.98 cal/g
 Numericals
Q. The following data obtained in a
were Calorimeter expt. bomb
Wt. of coal burnt = 0.994g
Wt. of water in Calorimeter = 2592g
Wt. of Bomb Calorimeter etc. = 3940g
Rise in temperature of water =
2.732oC
Mean specific heat of the apparatus =
0.098
Find the Gross Calorific Value of the fuel. If the fuel
contains 8% H, also calculate its Net Calorific Value.
Assume the latent heat of condensation of steam to be
587cal/g
Soln:
Wt. of coal burnt x =
Wt. of water in Calorimeter W = 2592g
0.994g
Wt. of Bomb Calorimeter etc. w=
Rise in temperature of water (T2 -T ) =
3940g
2.732oC 1
Mean specific heat of the apparatus s = 0.098
Water equivalent of Bomb Calorimeter w = w x
s
w =
3940 x 0.098
GCV= [(W + w)(T2-T1 )]/x
=[(2592+386.12)(2.732)]/0.994
= 8185.3cal/g
 Q. A sample of coal contains 92% C, 5% H and 3% ash.
When this coal was tested for its calorific value in the
bomb calorimeter, the following results were obtained

Wt. of coal burnt = 0.95g

Wt. of water in Calorimeter = 700g
Water equivalent of Bomb Calorimeter etc. =
2000g Rise in temperature of water =
2.48oC
Acid Correction = 60cal
Cooling Correction = 0.02oC
Fuse wire Correction =
10cal
Find the Gross Calorific Value of the fuel. If the fuel contains
5% H, also calculate its Net Calorific Value. Assume the
latent heat of condensation of steam to be 587cal/g
Soln:
Wt. of coal burnt x =
Wt. of water in Calorimeter W = 700g
0.95g
Water equivalent of Bomb Calorimeter etc. w =
2000g
Rise in temperature of water (T2 -T )=
2.48oCorrection
Acid C A.C. = 60cal 1
Cooling Correction C.C =
0.02oC Fuse wire Correction F.C
= 10cal
GCV= [(W + w)(T2-
T1+C.C )-(A.C + F.C)]/x
=7031.6cal/g
NCV= GCV – 0.09H
x587
6767.45cal/g
Determination of the Calorific Value of
Volatile Liquid and Gaseous Fuels

Boy’s Gas Calorimeter

Principle:
Known volume of the fuel is burnt in
excess of oxygen → heat liberated → known
amount of water. Steam formed due to
combustion inside the chimney gets
condensed to water and is collected
Construction of Boy’s
1. Vol of gas ( thru meter) Calorimeter
ⴄgas burner (combustion)
2. Burner surrounded by chimney/ combustion
chamber, which has a copper tubing inside as well
as outside.
Through copper coil, water flows at a constant rate .
Water ⴄtop of the outer coil, ⴄ passes through the
outer coils, ⴄ Bottom of the chimney ⴄ upwards
through the inner coils ⴄ exit from the top ⴄ water
collector
3. Initial Temperature - Thermometer t1
Final Temperature – Thermometer t2

2 2
4. On combustion, H ⴄ H O(steam) ⴄ H O(liq) ⴄ collector
whole assembly enclosed in an insulated chamber.
 Working of Boy`s Calorimeter

◻ Burning of fuel & circulation of water for about 15

minutes - initial warming up period.
◻ After warming, rate of flow is adjusted that the
water leaves the apparatus nearly at atmospheric
pressure.
◻ Heat produced by burning of gaseous fuels
ⴄtransferred to water in the copper coil ⴄ steam
formed inside the chimney (during combustion) ⴄ
water(liq) on condensation ⴄ collector.
Working of Boy`s Calorimeter
When the conditions become steady, following data
is recorded
1. Volume of gas burnt at a given Temperature & Pressure
in time t ⴄ this volume is converted at NTP.
2. Weight of water (cooling gaseous pdts) passed through
the coil during time t.
3. Initial and Final Temperature of water.
4. Weight of water (l) (from condensation of steam)
obtained during this time.
 Calculations
Volume of the gas burnt at STP in a certain time t = Vm3
Weight of water passed through the coil in time t = W kg
Weight of water condensed during this time = m kg
Initial Temperature of water = T1 o C
Final Temperature of water = T2 o C
Rise in temperature = T2-T1 o C
Gross Calorific Value = C Kcal/m3
Calculations
Heat absorbed by the circulating water = W(T2-T1)
Heat produced by combustion of fuel = VC
Heat Lost = Heat Gained by water
VC = W (T2-T1)
Gross Calorific Value (C ) = W (T2-T1)/V
Net Calorific Value
Weight of water condensed per m3 of gas = m/V kg
Latent heat of steam per m3 of gas= m x 587/ V kcal
So, Net calorific value = GCV – m/V x 587 kcal/m3
 Numeric
als
During the determination of C.V. of a gaseous fuel
by Boy`s Calorimeter, the following results were
recorded.
Volume of gaseous fuel burnt at NTP = 0.098m3
Weight of the water used for cooling the combustion
Products = 50kg
Weight of the steam condensed =0.051Kg
Temperature of the inlet water =26.1oC
Temperature of the outlet water = 46.5o C
Determine the Gross and Net Calorific value
Soln:
Volume of gaseous fuel burnt at NTP V = 0.098m3
Weight of the water used for cooling pdts W = 50kg
Weight of the steam condensed m = 0.051Kg
Temperature of the inlet water t =1 26.1oC
Temperature of the outlet water t2= 46.5o C
Latent heat of condensation of
steam L = 587 cal/g
Gross Calorific Value (GCV) = [W(t2-
t1)/V]
= [50 x (46.5 – 26.1) /
0.098]
= 10408.2 kcal/m3
Net Calorific Value (NCV ) = GCV –
[(m x L)/V]
Q. The following data were obtained in a Boy’s gas
Calorimeter expt.
Volume of gas used = 0.1m3 at STP
Weight of water heated = 26kg
Temperature of inlet water = 26oC
Temperature of outlet water = 36oC
Weight of steam condensed = 0.030 kg
Calculate the higher and lower calorific value per m3
at STP. Assume the heat liberated in condensing
water vapour and cooling the condensate as
580kcal/kg
Soln:
Volume of gas used V = 0.1m3 at STP
Weight of water heated W = 26kg
Temperature of inlet water t 1 = 26oC
Temperature of outlet water t2= 36oC
Weight of steam condensed m = 0.030 kg
Latent heat of condensation of steam L = 580 cal/g
Higher Calorific Value (HCV) = [W(t2-t1)/V]
= [26 x (36 – 26) / 0.1]
= 2600kcal/m3
Lower Calorific Value (LCV ) = HCV – [(m x L)/V]
= 2600–[ (0.03 x 580)/0.1]
= 2426 kcal/m3
Q. Calculate GCV and NCV of a gaseous fuel from the
following data
Volume of gas used = 0.09m3 at STP
Weight of water used for cooling = 25kg
Temperature of inlet water = 25oC
Temperature of outlet water = 30oC
Weight of water produced by steam
condensation =
0.030 kg
Calculate the higher and lower calorific value per m3
at STP. Assume the heat liberated in condensing
water vapour and cooling the condensate as
587kcal/kg
Volume of gas used V = 0.09m3 at STP
Weight of water used for cooling W = 25kg
Temperature of inlet water t 1 = 25oC
Temperature of outlet water t 2 = 30oC
Weight of water produced by steam condensation m =
0.030 kg
Gross Calorific Value (GCV) = [W(t2-t1)/V]
= [25 x (30 – 25) / 0.09]
= 1388.9kcal/m3
Net Calorific Value (NCV ) = GCV – [(m x L)/V]
= 1388.9–[ (0.02 x 587)/0.09]
= 1258.5 kcal/m3
 Theoretical Calculation of C.V.
Dulong’s formula based on the calorific
valuesof its constituents.
The calorific value of C, H, and S are found to be 8080,
34500 and 2240 kcal/kg respectively.

GCV=1/100{8080C+34,500(H-O/8)+2,240S} kcal/kg
Therefore, the Net calorific value will be
NCV = [ GCV – 9H/100 x 587] kcal/kg
= [ GCV – 0.09H x 587] kcal/kg
Theoretical Calculation of C.V.
Why is it (H-O/8 ) instead of O?
Oxygen is present in the fuel combines with hydrogen
ⴄH O.
2
ie hydrogen in the combined form is
not available for combustion and is called
fixed hydrogen.
Amount of hydrogen available for combustion = Total
mass of hydrogen- hydrogen combined with oxygen
8 parts by weight of oxygen combines with 1part by
weight of hydrogen ⴄ water
i.e. For every 8 parts of oxygen, 1 part of hydrogen gets
Numerical
Q. Calculate the gross and net calorific value of a coal
sample having the following composition. C:82%, H2: 8%,
O2:5% , S= 2.5%, N2: 1.4% and ash: 2.1%.
Solution :
GCV = 1/100[8080x %C+34500(%H-%O/8] + 2240 x %S]
= 1/100[8080x82+34500[8-5/8]+2240x2.5]
= 1/100[662560+254437.5+5600]=9225.9 kcal/kg
NCV = GCV-0.09H x 587
= 9225.9-0.09x8x587
= 8803.26kcal/kg
Q. A coal sample contains C:70%, H: 6.2%, O:16.1% , N:
3.2% and ash: 4.5%. Calculate the gross and net calorific
value of a coal sample, assuming latent heat of steam
to be 587 cal/g
Solution:
GCV = 1/100[8080x %C+34500(%H-%O/8] + 2240 x %S]
= 1/100[8080x70+34500[6.2-16.1/8]+2240x0]
= 7100.69kcal/kg
NCV = GCV - 0.09H x 587
= 7100.69 -
0.09 x 6.2 x 587
=
6773.14kcal/kg
Q A coal has the following composition by weight:
C=92%, O=2.0% ,S=0.5%, N=0.5% and ash=1.5%. Net
calorific value of the coal was found to be 9.430kcal/kg.
Calculate the percentage of hydrogen and GCV.
Solution :
Gross calorific value (GCV)
= 1/100 [8080x92 + 34500[H-
2/8]+2240x0.5]kcal/g
= [7433.60+ 345 H -86.25+11.2]kcal/kg
= [7358.55+345H] kcal/kg.................................(i)
Net calorific value (NCV) = 9.430kcal/kg
Also GCV = [Net calorific value+0.09H x 587] kcal/kg
= 9430 + 0.09H X 587
From (i) and (ii);
[7358.55 + 345H] = [9430 +
52.83H] 292.17 H = 2071.45
So, the % of H= 2071.45/292.17
= 7.09%
Therefore, HCV = [7358.55 + 345 H] kcal/kg
= 7358.55 + [345 x 7.09] kcal/kg
= 9804.6kcal/kg
Characteristics of a Good Fuel
1. Suitable for process: eg coke made out of bituminous
coal is most suitable for blast furnace.
2. High Calorific value: → ⴄ of fuel high
3. Ignition temperature: Minimum temperature to which
the fuel must be heated to start burning smoothly.
Good fuel - moderate ignition temperature.
Low ignition temperature → fire hazards
High ignition temperature →lots of heat
required to ignite
4.Moisture Content: low
↓effective calorific value of fuel.
 Characteristics of A Good Fuel
5. Non combustible matter content : ↓heating value of the
fuel ie calorific value.
6. Nature of the products: harmful X
unpleasant odours & other harmful effects X
7. Cost of fuel: low cost and should be available in large
amount at a cheap rate.
8. Smoke: low → for a healthy environment.
9. Control of the process: Easy
Solid Fuels
▪ Occurs naturally - primary fuels.
eg wood and different types of coal

▪
Derived from the natural varieties - secondary
fuels. eg charcoal and coke
 Woo
◻
d
Used as a fuel from ancient times.
◻ Sources – deforestation
Presently used in forest areas where available at a
very low cost.
◻ calorific value of air-dried wood is ≈ 3,500

-4,500kcal/kg.
◻ →long and non smoky flame with a small amount of

ash.
◻ Wood is largely used as a domestic fuel.
 Coal
Coal - fossil fuel ←vegetable debris under conditions of high
T and P over a million of years.
◻ Transformation vegetable debris →coal takes place in two

stages:
❖ Biochemical or peat stage:
Plant materials in presence of microorganisms → peat.

❖ Chemical Stage or metamorphism:

Peat deposits lose moisture & volatile components under the
action of High T & P → C ↑ and O↓
Spongy peat → hard brittle coal gradually.
 Analysis of Coal
Proximate analysis
◻ Ultimate analysis

◻ Proximate Analysis:
Moisture , Ash, Volatile Matter & Fixed Carbon.
◻ Ultimate analysis

◻ Carbon , Hydrogen, Sulphur, Nitrogen, Ash, Oxygen

 Proximate
Analysis
1) Moisture:
Coal is always associated with moisture.
Wet coal → dry coal in atmosphere
dry coal still contains some moisture↔ air dried moisture. Pre
weighed Coal (x) heated in electric oven at 105 to 110oC for
about an hour. After one hour, it is taken out from the oven
and cooled in the desiccator and weighed (x1).
Loss in weight of coal ≈ moisture content on % basis.
% moisture = [Loss in weight/weight of coal taken] x100
= [(x-x1)/x] x 100
◻ Excess of moisture undesirable in coal ↓heating value of coal & the
heat is wasted in the form of latent heat of vaporisation.
What is a
Desiccator?
 Proximate Analysis
2) Volatile Matter:
Volatile matter ( H2, CO, and CH4 and other hydrocarbons).
Known weight of moisture free coal sample (x1) in a covered
platinum crucible is heated at 950o C for 7 minutes.
crucible is cooled, first in air, then inside a desiccator and
weighed (x2).
Loss in weight ≈ volatile matter on % basis.
% of Volatile Matter = [Loss of weight due to removal of
volatile matter/Weight of coal sample taken] x 100
% of V.M. = [(x1-x2)/x] x 100
Significance:
High volatile matter → long flames, high smoke.
 Proximate Analysis
3) Ash:
On combustion,Inorganic mineral substances in coal → ash
Ash consists of silica, alumina, iron oxide and small
quantities of lime , magnesia, etc.
Weighed Coal (x2)( after removal of moisture and V.M.) is
heated at ≈ 700oC for half an hour without covering.
Product is cooled & weighed (x3).
Weight of residue ≈ % of ash
% of ash = [Wt of the residue left/Wt of the coal] x 100
= [ x3/x] x 100
Significance:
Ash – undesirable, ↓passage of air, ↓rate of
 Proximate Analysis
4) Fixed Carbon (F.C.):
low ranking coals(lignite)ⴄhigh ranking coals ( anthracite)
Fixed Carbon ↑
Fixed Carbon↑ ≡ Calorific Value ↑ ie better quality of coal.
The percentage of fixed carbon is given by:
% Fixed Carbon=100 - [% of moisture
+ volatile matter + ash]
Significance:
◻ Higher Fixed Carbon ≈ Higher Calorific Value

◻ Helps in designing furnace

 Numericals
◻ Q1. A sample of coal was analysed as follows:
Exactly 2.0g was weighed into a silica crucible. After
heating for one hour at 105-110oC, the residue
weighed 1.975g.The crucible next was covered with a
vented lid and strongly heated for exactly seven
minutes at 950oC. The residue weighed 1.328 g. The
crucible was then heated without the cover, until a
constant weight was obtained. The last residue was
found to weigh 0.205 g. Calculate the percentage
results of the above analysis.
Solution
Mass of coal sample x = 2.0g
Mass of moisture in coal sample x1 = 1.975g
Mass of volatile matter (V.M) x2 = 1.328g
Mass of Ash x3 = 0.205g
% of moisture = [(x-x1)/x] x 100 = 2.0 -
1.975= 0.025g
= [0.025/ 2.0] x
100 = 1.25%
% of V.M = [(x1-x2)/x] x 100 = 1.975 - 1.328 =
0.647g
= [0.647/ 2.0]
◻ A sample of coal was analysed as follows: Exactly 5.0g
was weighed into a silica crucible. After heating for one
hour at 105-110oC, the residue weighed 4.8g.The
crucible next was covered with a vented lid and
strongly heated for exactly seven minutes at 950oC. The
residue weighed 3.38 g. The crucible was then heated
without the cover, until a constant weight was
obtained. The last residue was found to weigh 0.075 g.
Calculate the percentage results of the above analysis.
Solution:
Mass of coal sample x = 5.0g
Mass of moisture in coal sample x1 = 4.8g
Mass of volatile matter (V.M) x2 = 3.38g
Mass of Ash x3 = 0.075g
% of moisture = [(x-x1)/x] x 100 = 5.0 –
4.8= 0.2g
= [0.2/ 5.0] x 100
= 4.0%
% of V.M = [(x1-x2)/x] x 100 = 4.8- 3.38 =
1.42g
= [1.42/ 5.0]

x 100 = 28.4%
% of Ash = [ x3/x] x 100 = [0.075 / 5.0] x
 Ultimate Analysis
Estimation of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen & oxygen.
Carbon and Hydrogen:
Known amount of coal (x) is taken in a combustion tube and
burnt in excess of pure oxygen.
C + O2 → CO2
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O
gaseous products of combustion → two bulbs,
a) contg. weighed amount of anhydrous CaCl2 → absorbs H2O
b) contg. weighed amount of KOH → absorbs CO
2
% of C & H are calculated from ↑ weight of the respective
absorption tubes.
Diagram
 Calculations
2 KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O
CaCl2 + 7 H2O → CaCl .7H O
2 2
Let, weight of coal sample taken = x g
Increase in weight of KOH tube= y g
44g of CO2 ≡ 12g of C
y g of CO2 ≡ { (12/44) x y }g of C
% of C = [{(12/44 ) x y}/weight of coal
taken] x 100
= [{(12/44 ) x y}/ x]

x 100
↑ weight of CaCl tube = z g
2
Nitrogen:

N in the coal sample estimated by Kjeldahl’s method.

A known weight of the given coal sample(x) along with
K2SO4 + HgSO4 which acts as a catalyst is heated with
conc.H2SO4. N present in coal → (NH4)2SO4.
N + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
Contents transferred → round bottom flask, ∆ with
excess NaOH
→ NH gas ↑is absorbed in known volume of std
solution of acid
3
Total Acid = Used Acid + Unused Acid
Unused Acid is then determined by titrating with NaOH.
 Calculations
(NH4)2SO4 + NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
NH + H SO → (NH ) SO
3 2 4 4 2
Let the weight of coal taken = x g 4

Volume of the Acid used up = V1 mL

Normality of the Acid = N1
V1 mL of N1Acid = V2 mL of N2 NH3
V2 mL of 1N NH3 = V1 X N1 mL of Acid
But 1000ml of 1N NH3 solution = 17g of NH3 = 14g
of N
V2mL of 1N NH3soln = [14/1000] x N1 x V1 g of N
(as V2= N1V1)
% of N = [14/1000] x [ N1 x V1 x 100/x]
Kjeldahl’s Method
 Ultimate Analysis
Sulphur:
S in the coal oxidised by fuming nitric acid→ H SO .
2 4
H2SO4 + BaCl2 →BaSO4 ↓ determined
quantitatively.
BaSO4 ppt is filtered, ∆ to a constant weight.
weight of BaSO4 ≡ S present in the coal
Let the weight of coal sample= x g
The mass of the BaSO4 ppt = x1 g
233 g of BaSO4 ≡ 32 g of S
x1 g of BaSO4 = 32/233 x1 g
% of S = [32/233] x [x1 / x] x 100
Significance:
S - undesirable constituent as it emits corrosive SO2, SO3
during combustion and highly objectionable H2S during
carbonization of coal → gases atmospheric pollution.
S containing coal is not suitable for metallurgical coke as
it adversely affects the properties of metal.
Oxygen:
% of O = 100 - (% C + % H + % N + % S)
Significance:
Lesser the oxygen content, better is the coal.
Oxygen content of coal is associated with moisture → low
calorific value and low coking value
Numerical
Q 1.0 g of a sample of coal was used in a bomb
calorimeter for the determination of calorific value.
Calorific value of coal was found to be 8,800cal/g. The
ash formed in the bomb calorimeter was extracted
with acid and the acid extract was heated with barium
nitrate solution and a precipitate of barium sulphate
was obtained. The precipitate was filtered , dried and
weighed. The weight of the precipitate was found to
be 0.08 g. Calculate the percentage of sulphur in the
coal sample.
Solution.
weight of coal sample= x g = 1.0 g
mass of the BaSO4 ppt = x1 g = 0.08 g
233 g of BaSO4 ≡ 32 g of S
x1 g of BaSO4 = 32/233 x1 g
% of S = [32/233] x [x1 / x] x 100
= [32/233] x [0.08 / 1] x 100
% of S in the coal sample = 1.098%
Numericals
Q. 1.56g of a sample of coal was kjeldhlized and NH3 gas
thus evolved was absorbed in 50 ml of 0.1N H2SO4.
After absorption, the excess (residual) acid required
6.25 ml of 0.1N NaOH for exact neutralization.2.60g of
the coal sample in a quantitative analysis gave 0.1755g
of BaSO4.Calculate the percentage of N and S in the
coal sample.
Solution
weight of coal taken = x =1.56g
Total Volume of the Acid = 50 mL
Normality of the Acid = N1=0.1 N
V1 mL of N1Acid = V2 mL of N2 NH3
V2 mL of 1N NH3 = V1 X N1 mL of
Acid
6.25 ml of 0.1N NaOH=6.25ml of
0.1NH2SO4
So, Volume of H2SO4 used to neutralize NH3 evolved = 50ml of 0.1N - 6.25 ml
of 0.1N H2SO4
= 43.75ml of 0.1N H2SO4
Volume of the Acid used up = V1 =43.75mL
V2mL of 1N NH3soln = [14/1000] x N1 x V1 g of N (as V2= N1V1)
% of N = [14/1000] x [ N1 x V1 x 100/x]
= [1.4 x N1x V1/ x]
= [1.4 x 0.1 x 43.75 /1.56]
weight of coal sample= x g = 2.6g
mass of the BaSO4 ppt = x1 g = 0.1755 g
233 g of BaSO4 ≡ 32 g of S
x1 g of BaSO4 = 32/233 x1 g
% of S = [32/233] x [x1 / x] x 100
= [32/233] x [0.1755 / 2.6] x
100
= 0.927%
 Carbonization of Coal
◻ Process Coal → Coke Carbonization.
Coal ∆ in absence of air sufficiently high T decomposes →
residue richer in C content than the original fuel.
Caking coals:
At high T, coals soften & swell → residue (coherent mass
with porous structure) ie coke.
Coking coals:
Coke formed is hard, porous and strong than the coal (from
which it is formed) - coking coal.
Only bituminous coal → coking coal
Anthracite, Lignite, Sub bituminous – non coking coals
Generally Coals with 20-30 % VM → coking coal
 Coals

Caking Non Caking

coals coals
Coking Coals Non Coking Coals

All coking coals are caking coals but all caking coals
are not coking coals
 Process of Carbonization
1. T ~ 1050C Moisture and occluded gases are driven off.
2. T ~2600-2700C, CO 2, H 2O, H 2S, some low molecular alkenes &
alkanes ↑.
3. T ~3500C decomposition of coal with evolution of gases
& elimination of tarry vapors.
4. T~ 4000C, caking coals become soft & plastic.
5. At T~ 7000C H ↑
2
6. At T~ 8000C, main gaseous form plastic mass,
products ↑ →
expand → foam like
appearance

7. Further ↑ T, this foam like mass solidifies → solid mass with

porous structure coke.
 Types of Carbonization

Coal is heated in the absence of air → Coke

Depending upon the T, it is of two types:

1. Low temperature carbonization (LTC)
2. High temperature carbonization (HTC)
Characteristics LTC HTC

Temp (0C) 500-700 1000-1200

Yield (%) 75-80 65-75

Volatile matter (%) 5-15 1-3
Mechanical Not strong strong
strength

Hardness Soft coke Hard coke

Uses For domestic For metallurgical
Characteristics LTC HTC
Yield of the gas Lower ~ 130-150 Higher ~ 300-390
(m3/tonne)

Calorific value of Higher ~ Lower ~ 5400-6000

the gas 6500-9500
(kcal/m3)
% of straight chain Higher Lower
hydrocarbons

% of aromatics in Lower Higher

the by-products

Smoke produced Smokeless Smoky

on burning
 Metallurgical Coke
Properties of coke depend on porosity, reactivity &
volatile matter retained by coke during carbonization.
Uses-
◻ heat source

◻ reducing agent in metallurgy.

Characteristics of a good coke for metallurgical process :

o Purity: Lower % moisture, ash, S & P.

o Porosity: Porous to provide contact between C & O.

o Strength: High strength to withstand the weight of

the ore, flux etc. in the furnace.
o Size: Medium sized coke.

o Combustibility: Burn easily.

o Combustibility depends on Nature of the

 Metallurgical Coke
o Calorific value: High
o Cost: Cheap & easily available near metallurgical
plant.
o Reactivity:
o Ability to react with CO2 , steam, air & oxygen.
o Reactivity should not be too high.
o Reactivity toward CO2 represent the reduction of
CO2 according to equation
CO2 (g) +C (s) ⇔ 2CO (g)
Manufacture - Metallurgical Coke - Otto-Hoffmann oven

Principle - regenerative principle of heat economy

i.e. utilization of waste fuel gases for heating of the
checker work of bricks & all valuable products are
recovered from the outgoing flue gases.
◻ Consists of no. of narrow rectangular chambers made of

silica bricks.
◻ L - 12 to 14 m , Ht - 4 to 5 m , B - 0.5 m.

◻ Chambers are tightly closed so that no air can enter.

◻ At the top of each chamber there are three holes for

charging the coal.

◻ It consists of nos. of narrow rectangular chambers made

of silica bricks
 Fig: Otto-Hoffmann Oven

◻ .
Working : Otto-Hoffmann Oven
◻ Coal → charged into the chamber.
◻ Coke ovens ∆ to T ~ 1200oC by burning gaseous fuels.
◻ Carbonization takes place layer by layer in the coal charge.
Oven walls gets heated, passes ∆ to coal adjacent to
walls. Plastic zone is formed which moves away from the
walls towards the central zone.
◻ At T ~ 500oC, Coal→ coke ≡ ↓volume of coal due to
removal of volatile matter in the form of tar and gas
◻ Further ↑ in T, plastic mass solidifies → into hard & porous
mass called coke.

◻ Principle of Regenerators - alternate heating & cooling

cycles is employed to achieve as economical heating as
possible.
 Working : Otto-Hoffmann Oven
◻ Regenerators are built underneath the ovens.
◻ Flue gases pass their ∆ to the checker brick work of
regenerators until T reaches 1000oC.
◻ Achieved by periodically changing the direction of flow of
gases through the vertical flues after every 30 min or so.
◻ Carbonization of coal takes ~ 11-18 hours - completion.
After completion, red hot coke is pushed outside by
means of an electrically driven ram.
◻ Coke falls into a quenching car.
◻ Yield ~ 75 % of coal.
 Recovery of by-products
◻ Gases & vapours ↑ from carbonization in coke ovens &
Gases & vapours ↑ from combustion
- not allowed to mix and are collected separately.
◻ Coke oven gas treated separately for the recovery of the
valuable byproducts.
 Recovery of by-products
1.Recovery of Tar: Gas from the coke ovens → tower in
which liquor NH3 is sprayed. Tar and dust ↓ tank.
Tank has heating coils to recover NH3.
2.Recovery of ammonia: Gases passes → tower
where H2O is sprayed to recover NH3 .
NH3recovered by dissolving in H 2SO →(NH ) SO -4 fertilizer.
4 2
4
3. Recovery of
tower, where H2O Naphthalene:
is sprayed at lowGases
T. Gaspasses→ cooling
is scrubbed with
H2O until T ↓.
4. Recovery of Benzole: Gases passes→ into a light oil or
benzol scrubber. Benzene along with its homologue ↓
 Recovery of by-products
◻ Recovery of H2S & other S compounds:
coke oven gases → light oil + H2S
+ S compds
Fe2O3 + 3H2S → Fe2S 3 + 3H2O
2Fe2S +3 4O2 → 2FeO +3SO2
4FeO + O2 → 2Fe2O 3
◻ SO →2H SO , which absorbs NH ( coal
2 4 3
gas).
 Liquid Fuels
• Importance - all combustion engines run on them.
•Largest source of liquid fuels is petroleum.

Calorific value of petroleum ~ 4000 kJ/kg.

Crude oil (reaching the surface) consists of s, l &
g hydrocarbons along with sand & water.
• Steps:

• removal of dirt, H O & much of the associated

2
natural gas
• Crude oil passes fractional distillation → useful
fractions
• Resultant fractions → purification (refining of

petroleum).
 Cracking
Fractional distillation of crude petroleum → Fractions
Gasoline - most important fraction.
Yield - only 20% of crude oil.

Yield of heavier petroleum fraction

- quite high.

So, heavier fractions → Gasoline.

Process - Cracking

Cracking - process by which heavier fractions →

lighter fractions by applying heat, with or without catalyst.
 Process of Cracking
◻ Rupture of C-C and C-H bonds in the chains of high molecular
weight hydrocarbons eg.

□ C10 H22 → C5H12 + C5H 10

Decane n-pentane Pentene

◻ Higher hydrocarbons→ lower hydrocarbons C-C

cleavage. Products - low boiling points

◻ Straight chain alkanes → branched chain hydrocarbons .

◻ Saturated hydrocarbons → Unsaturated hydrocarbons

◻ Cyclization may takes place.

 Types of Cracking
I Thermal Cracking:
◻ Cracking in presence of heat and pressure

At high T & P Heavy oils (containing higher hydrocarbons) →

Lower molecules of paraffins, olefins etc.
Order of Thermal stability
Paraffins < naphthenes < aromatics
Types:
1. Liquid Phase thermal cracking:
Charge (liquid form) at P(30-100kg/cm2) &
T(476-530oC) →
Gasoline (30- 35%), Gases (10-45%); Fuel oil (50-
55%).
2. Vapour phase thermal cracking:
Oils which vapourize at low temperatures can be
 Catalytic Cracking
Cracking - presence of a catalyst at much lower T & P
◻ Catalyst - mixture of silica & alumina.

◻ Recently catalyst used is zeolite.

Quality & yield of gasoline is greatly improved

Types:
1. Fixed-bed type Catalytic Cracking
2. Moving-bed Catalytic Cracking
Fixed-bed Catalytic Cracking
Moving-bed Catalytic Cracking
Comparison Thermal Cracking & Catalytic Cracking
Parameters Thermal Catalytic Cracking
Cracking
Temp High Not too high
Pressure Not too
High temp and pressure are not required in the presence of a catalyst.
High high
Rxns
Catalyst Not
Decomposition. Decomposition.
Applicable
appli
Dehydrogenation, Dehydrogenation,
cabl
isomerization, isomerization,
e
polymerisation polymerization
Control of Rxns No Ye
Process selectivity No s
By-Products Ye
Yes s
Nature of products No
Parameters Thermal Cracking Catalytic Cracking
Presence of S Some S based Mostly escapes as H2S
products
Adsorption of No Ye
coke formed s
on catalyst
Ext Fuel Ye No, ∆ by burning cok
s on adsorbed on
Cost High cataly
Economic as High T &
not reqd
 Knocking
Fuels for internal combustion engines - Petrol & diesel oils
Internal Combustion Engines – ignition in cylinder
Petrol Engines- ignition by electric spark
Diesel Engines- ignition by compression of air
Ignition →gases → ↑P →pushes pistondown
→ power stroke

Petrol & diesel oil - engine fuels.

Piston engines

spark ignition(SI)engines compression ignition(CI) engines

petrol/gasoline diesel oil
Spar.k Ignition (SI) engines (four Stroke SI engines):
◻ Petrol vapours + air in carburetor & drawn into the

cylinder - Suction Stroke.

◻ Compression of fuel-air mixture – Compression Stroke

◻ Mixture ignited by an electric spark. Combustion produces

hot gases ,↑P & pushes piston down , output of power–

Power Stroke
◻ Piston ascends & expels exhaust gases from cylinder –

Exhaust Stroke
Cycle starts again
1. Intake of fuel

2. Compression

3. Power
(Combustion)

4. Exhaust
 Knocking in Petrol Engines
• Fuel - air mixture should burn smoothly → sparking.
Sometimes, due to compression, the fuel-air mixture →∆ to
T > IgnitionT → Spontaneous Combustion before sparking. -
Pre-Ignition.
So, Spontaneous Combustion & sparking → faster & explosive
rxns(uncontrolled burning) →characteristic metallic or rattling
sound from the engine - knocking or detonation or pinking.
↓ ⴄ & ↓ energy
Knocking in Petrol Engines
 Chemical Structure and Knocking
◻ knocking tendency ↓ as follows

n-alkanes → iso paraffins → olefins →

naphthenes
→ aromatics
◻ n-alkanes - lowest antiknock value.

◻
Desirable in petrol - presence of maximum quantity
of aromatics & minimum quantity of n-alkanes .
Octane Number
◻ Octane number - expresses
the knocking characteristics of
petrol.
◻ n - heptane (a constituent of petrol)
knocks v.badly→ 0 anti-knock value
isooctane (aconstituent of
petrol) knocks v.little →100
anti-knock value
 Octane Number
◻ %age of iso-octane present in iso octane & n-heptane
mixture, which matches the same knocking
characteristics of gasoline mixture test sample.
◻ If a petrol sample behaves like a mixture of 60% iso-
octane and 40% n-heptane, its octane number is taken as
60.

Note: Octane number indicates the tendency of fuels to knock.

The higher the octane number the more difficult the auto-
ignition. – n-Heptane (C7H16) has a octane number 0, – iso-
octane (C8H18) has a octane number 100. – Gasoline has a
octane number 93 – 97.
 ***Leaded Petrol –
Improvement of Anti-knock Value
◻ Adding some additives in it
increases octane number of
petrol.
◻ In motor fuel about 1.0 to
1.5 ml tetra ethyl lead (TEL)
is added per litre of petrol.
◻ Petrol to which TEL is added
is called leaded petrol.
Structure of TEL (Tetra ethyl Lead)
Disadvantage of using TEL
◻ TEL forms lead oxide, which deposits on spark plug
and creates
◻ problems. So, to remove it, ethylene dibromide is
added.
◻ During burning lead bromide is formed which
evaporates away in the heat engines and goes out
together with exhaust gases. This creates
atmospheric pollution for human beings.
◻
Hence, at present aromatic phosphates are used
instead of TEL.
Mechanism of knocking
◻ Knocking follows free radical mechanism, leading to
a chain growth. If the chains are terminated before
their growth, knocking will cease.
◻ TEL decomposes thermally to form ethyl free
radicals, which combines with the free radicals of
knocking process and thus the chain growth is
stopped.
Diesel Engines
Compression Ignition (CI)engines (Power Stroke engines):
◻ Air drawn into the cylinder - Suction Stroke
◻ Compressed alone → P 30-50Kg/cm2 ,T ~ 300o
C–
Compression Stroke
◻ Oil injected / sprayed (droplets) into hot compressed air,
to absorb ∆ → ignition
So, ignition by ∆ & P & not by spark (Petrol engine)
◻ Ignition/Combustion products → ↑P & pushes
piston down, output of power – Power Stroke
◻ Piston ascends & expels exhaust gases from cylinder
– Exhaust Stroke
Cycle starts again
Knocking – Diesel Engines
◻ Some times, even after the compression stroke is over
and even after the diesel oil is sprayed, burning may
not start. So, more and more fuel is injected
automatically and sudden ignition may occur and burn
the whole of the oil.
◻ This delayed ignition results an uncontrolled, excessive
combustion produces ‘diesel knock’.
◻ So in SI - engine, knocking is due to premature or too
early ignition in CI - engines, knocking is due to
delayed ignition or ignition lag.
 Cetane Number
• Cetane number expresses the knocking characteristics
of diesel. Cetane (C16 H 34) has a very short ignition
delay and hence its cetane number is taken as 100.
• On the other hand, α-methyl naphthalene has very
large ignition delay and hence its cetane number is
taken as zero.
• Cetane number is as “the percentage of
defined mixture of α –
cetane
naphthalene present
and cetane”.
in a methyl

Structure of n- (α-methyl napthalene )

Cetane Number
Chemical Structure and Knocking
◻ The knocking tendency in CI - engines increases as
follows
n-alkanes → iso paraffins → Olefins → naphthenes
→ aromatics
◻ Octane numbers decreases in this order. Therefore
an oil of high octane number has a low cetane
number and vice-versa. Consequently, petroleum
crude gives petrol of high octane number and diesel
of low cetane number.
 Cetane Number
Higher cetane related with:
◻ improved combustion

◻ improved cold starting

◻ reduced noise, white smoke, HC, CO

and particulate emissions.

Fuel Ignition Quality
◻ The ignition characteristics of the fuel

affect the ignition delay.

◻
The ignition quality is defined by
its cetane number.
Cetane Rating
 Combustion
◻ Exothermic chemical reaction with heat and light.
◻ Proper Combustion – Fuels start at Ignition
Temperature.
◻ Complete Combustion : Total Oxidation of Fuel –
(reqd adequate supply of oxygen )
◻ Oxygen - key to Combustion
Source: Air
◻ O: 20.9%, N: 79%
• Nitrogen:
(a)↓ Combustion Efficiency
(b) NOx at high T
• Carbon:
O2 / Air Reqd - Combustion of a unit quantity of fuel
1. Substances always combine in definite proportions
1. C(s) + O2(g) → CO2 (g)
2. Mass proportions 12 32 44
3. Similarly, H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) → 2H2O (g)
2 16 18
2. Follows Gas Laws at STP conditions
22.4 L of any gas ≡ 1 mole ie 22.4 L of CO ≡ 44 g CO
2 2
3. Air contains 21% of O2 by Volume & 23% by Mass.
i.e., by wt 1 kg of O2 ≡ (1x100)/23 = 4.35 kg of air
similarly, by vol 1 m3 of O ≡ (1x100)/21 = 4.76 m3 of
air 2
23kg of O2 ≡ 100kg of air
4. Molecular mass of air ≡ 28.94 g/mole.
5. The mass of any gas can be converted to its volume
at certain T and P by using the gas equation, PV=nRT.
6. Min. O2 reqd = theoretical O2 reqd – O2 present in fuel.
7. Calc. of Min.O2 reqd on the basis of complete combustion
8. In practice, it is impossible to obtain complete combustion
under stoichiometric conditions.
9.Incomplete combustion of C → CO So, excess air used
10.Excess air is expressed % increase over
the stoichiometric requirement and is defined by:

Excess air ↓ ⴄ of combustion system

10. O2 present in fuel is present in combination with H2 as H2O
which is a non combustible substance and does not take part
in combustion.
Rest of H2, called available hydrogen only takes part in the
combustion reaction.
◻ by mass 1 part of H + 8 parts of2 O →2
2
HAvailable
O H = [mass of H – (mass of O/8)]

◻ Theoretical amount of O2 reqd for the complete combustion of

1 kg solid or liquid fuel:
= [{(32/12) x C} + 8 {H – (O/8)} + S] kg
◻ Theoretical amt of air reqd for the complete combustion of 1
kg fuel:
= (100/23) [{(32/12) x C} + 8 {H – (O/8)} + S] kg
where, C, H , S and O represent
masses of each element respectively per kg of
fuel.
11.Mass of dry flue gases calculated by balancing
the carbon in the fuel & flue gases.
12. Excess air = Actual air – Total air
13. Total mass of N2 in dry product of combustion
= N2 (actual air supplied) + N2 (present in fuel)
14. Total mass of O2 in dry product of combustion
= wt of O2 (in excess air supplied)
15. Excess O2 = excess air x 23% (by weight)
or excess air x 21% (by
volume)
1. Balance chemical eqns for all components present in fuel.
2. Calculate wt / vol of O2 reqd by each one of them.
3. Total O2 reqd = Add O2 reqd by each component &
subtract the amt of O2 already present in
fuel.
4. Convert volume/ weight of O2 into air
6. vol of air reqd = Total O x 100/21 m3
5. wt of air reqd = Total O22 x 100/23 g
7. Actual air supplied is taking excess air.
8. Convert vol → wt ,use Avogadro's
law. Let y L be the amount of air
required…
1 m3
Numericals:
Q 1. Calculate the weight and volume of air required for
combustion of 1 kg of carbon.
Soln:
C + O2 → 2
CO
12
12kg32of C ≡ 32kg of O2
1kg of C ≡ [32/12] kg = 2.67 kg of O2
wt of air reqd. = 2.67 x [100/23] = 11.67kg = 11600g
vol of air reqd. for combustion of 1kg of C =
=11600 [22.4/molar mass of air]
= 11600 [22.4/28.94]
= 8978.6L = 8.97m3
Q 2. Calculate the minimum amount of air required for compl
combustion of 100 kg of a fuel containing 80% carbon, 6%
hydrogen, 5% oxygen ,2% Sulphur and rest N2 by weight.
Soln: Amount of fuel = 100kg
Constituents Amt Rxns Amount O2 required (Kg)
(%) (Kg)
C 80 C + O2 → CO2 80 80 x32/12 = 213.3
H 6 H2 + ½ O2 → H2O 6 6 x 16/2 = 48
S 2 S + O2 → SO2 2 2 x 32/32 = 2
O 5 5 -5
‘N’ does not burn, hence no ‘O’ is reqd.
Theoretical ‘O’ reqd for 100kg of fuel = 213.3 + 48 + 2 = 263.3kg
Net amt of ‘O’ reqd = Theoretical ‘O’ reqd – ‘O’ present in fuel
= 263.3 – 5 = 258.3 kg
Q.3. Determine the volume of air needed for complete combustion
of 1m3 of producer gas having the following composition by
volume . H2 = 30%, CO = 12%, CH4 = 5% and N2 = 50%.
Soln: Vol of gas = 1m3

Constit Vol rxns Vol Vol of O2reqd

uents (%) (m3) (m3)

CH4 5 CH4+2O2 → CO2+ 2H2O 0.050 0.05x2=0.1

H2 30 H2 + ½ O2 → H2O 0.30 0.30x0.5=0.15

CO 12 CO +½ O2 → CO2 0.12 0.12x0.5=0.06
N2 50 - - -

Total oxygen = 0.1 + 0.15 + 0.06 = 0.31 m3

So volume of air reqd = 0.31 x [100/21] = 1.476m3
Q 4. Calculate the volume of air required for complete combustion of
1m3 of gaseous fuel containing 48% CO, 8% CH ,4 40% H ,2%
2
C H2 ,1%
2
N 2
and rest is ash. Assume 50% excess air is supplied, calculate the vol of
air required for complete combustion.
Soln: Volume of fuel = 1m3
3
Constituents Vol (%) Rxns Vol(m3) Vol of O2 reqd(m )

CO 48 CO + 0.5O2→ CO2 0.48 0.48 x 0.5 = 0.24

CH4 8 CH4 +2O2 → CO2+2H2O 0.08 0.08 x 2 = 0.16
H2 40 H2 + 0.5 O2 → H2O 0.40 0.40 x 0.5 = 0.20
C 2 H2 2 C2H2 + 2.5O2 →2CO2+H2O 0.02 0.02 x 2.5 = 0.05
‘

N’ does not burn, hence no ‘O’ is reqd.

Theoretical ‘O’ reqd for 1m3 of fuel = 0.24 + 0.16 + 0.20 + 0.05 = 0.65m3
So volume of air reqd = 0.65 x [100/21] = 3.095m3
Actual air requirement = [150/100]3.095 = 4.643m3
Q5. Calculate the mass of air to be supplied for the
combustion of 1 kg of a fuel containing 75% carbon, 8%
hydrogen and 3% oxygen, if 40% excess air is supplied.
Soln: Amount of air = 1kg
Constituent Amt (%) Rxns Amt (kg) Amt of O2 reqd (kg)
s
C 75 C + O2 → CO2 0.75 [32/12]x 0.75= 2.0

H 8 H2 + ½ O2 → H2O 0.08 [16/2] x 0.08 =0.64

O 3 - 0.03 -0.03

Total O2 = 2 + 0.64 – 0.03 =2.61 kg

Minimum amout of air reqd for combustion of 1kg fuel
= 2.61 x [100/23] = 11.34 kg
Actual air supplied =11.34 x[140/100] = 15.88 kg
Q.6. Determine the volume of air needed for complete combustion
of 1m3 of producer gas having the following composition by
volume. H2 = 30%, CO = 12%, CH4 = 5% and N2 = 50%.
Soln:
Constituents & rxns Amount (m3) Oxygen required (m3)

CH4 +2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O 0.05 0.05 x 2 = 0.1

H2 + ½ O2 → H2O 0.3 0.3 x 0.5 = 0.15
CO + ½ O2 → CO2 0.12 0.12 x 0.5 = 0.06
N2 0.5 nil
Total oxygen = 0.1 + 0.15 + 0.06 = 0.31 m3

Volume of air reqd for complete combustion = 0.31 m3 x 100/21

= 1.48 m3
***Numerical on Combustion

Q3. The percentage composition by mass of a sample

of coal is C = 90, H2 = 3.5, O2 = 3.0, N2 = 1.0, S = 0.5,
the remaining being ash. Estimate the minimum mass
of air required for the complete combustion of 1 kg
of this fuel and the percentage composition of dry
products of composition, if 50% excess air is
supplied.
Numerical on Combustion
Sol 3. For complete combustion of one kg of fuel, the
amount of oxygen required and amount of products of
combustion formed are calculated as …
Constituents Amount Oxygen required (Kg)
(Kg)
C + O2 → CO2 0.9 0.9 x 32/12 = 2.4
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O 0.035 0.035 x 16/2 = 0.28
Oxygen 0.03 - 0.03
Nitrogen no equation 0.01 zero
S + O2 → SO2 0.005 0.005 x 32/32 = 0.005
Numerical on Combustion
Total oxygen = 2.4 + 0.28+ 0.005 – 0.03 = 2.655 kg
(a)So minimum mass of air required for complete
combustion = 2.655 kg X 100/23
= 11.54 kg

(b) Actual air supplied = 11.54 kg X 150/100

= 17.31 Kg

(c) Excess air = 17.31 – 11.54 = 5.77 Kg

 Numerical on Combustion
Due to excess air, quantity of N2 and O2 will increase in
the products of combustion.
Constituents Amount Products formed (Kg)
(Kg)
C + O2 → CO2 0.9 0.9 x 44/12 = 3.3
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O 0.035 no contribution
Oxygen 0.03 nil
Nitrogen no equation 0.01 0.01

S + O2 → SO2 0.005 0.005 x 64/32 = 0.01

Numerical on Combustion
Dry Products
1. Total mass of N2 in dry product of combustion
= N2 in air supplied (in actual air) + N2 present in
fuel
= 17.31 x 77/100 + 0.01
= 13.33 kg
2. Total mass of excess O2 in dry product
of combustion
= wt of O2 in excess air supplied
= 5.77 x 23/100 = 1.327 Kg
Numerical on Combustion
3. Total wt of CO2 is as already calculated = 3.3 kg
4. Total wt of SO2 is as already calculated = 0.01 kg

5. Total weight of dry products = 13.33 + 1.327 +

3.3 + 0.01 = 17.967 Kg

6. % CO2 = 3.3/17.967 X 100 = 18.36%

7. % SO2 = 0.01/ 17.967 X 100 = 0.055 %
8. % N2 = 13.33/17.967 X 100 = 74.19%