Indexing Techniques

• Indexing is used to speed up retrieving of data.

• A Separate sequential file is maintained for indexing.
• Index file contains a key field and a pointer to main file where actual
data is
stored. search-key pointer

• Address of data from index file is used to retrieve data from main file.
• Index files are typically much smaller than the original file.
Advantages:
1. Indexing provide better flexibility. Key are ordered.
2. Requires less storage compared to main file. Only Keys are stored and pointers.
3. Inserting new records doesn’t affect main file. Need to update index structure.
 Indexing Techniques
Key Pointer ID InstructorName Department Salary
10101 22222 Einstein Physics 60000
12121 10101 Srinivasan Computer 90000
22222 76543 Singh Mechanical 70000
33456 33456 Raj Computer 80000
76543 12121 Vijay Civil 75000
…. … …. …. …

Index File Main File

Disadvantages :
1. Increased database maintenance overhead:
2. Choosing an index can be difficult:
3. Indexing can reduce insert and update performance since the index data structure must be updated each time data is
modified
4. Indexing necessitates more storage space to hold the index data structure, which might increase the total size of the
database.
 Indexing Techniques
• Primary Indexing.
• Dense Indexing.
• Sparse Indexing.
• Secondary Indexing.
 Indexing Techniques
Primary Indexing :
Primary indexing only has two columns. First column has the primary key values
which are the search keys. The second column has the pointers which contain the
address to the corresponding data block of the search key value. The table should be
ordered and there is a one-to-one relationship between the records in the index file
and the data blocks. This is a more traditional yet a fast mechanism.
.
 Indexing Techniques
Dense Index :
There is an index record that contains a search key and pointer for every search key
value in the data file. Though the Dense index is a fast method it requires more
memory to store index records for each key value
 Indexing Techniques
Sparse Index :
There are only a few index records that point to the search key value. First, the
index record starts searching sequentially by pointing to a location of a value in the
data file until it finds the actual location of the search key value. Though sparse
indexing is time-consuming, it requires less memory to store index records as it has
less of them.
 Indexing Techniques
Secondary Indexing (Non clustered Indexing) :
The columns in the Secondary indexing hold the values of the candidate key along
with the respective pointer which has the address to the location of the values.
Index and data are communicated with each other through an intermediate node.
 Indexing Techniques
Clustered Indexing :
The table is ordered in clustered indexing. At the times when the indexes are
created using the non-primary key, we combine two or more columns together to
get the unique values to identify data uniquely and use it to create the index.
The pointers are pointed to the cluster as a whole.
 Indexing Techniques
Multilevel Indexing :
If the primary index does not fit in the memory, multilevel indexing is used. When
the database increases its size the indices also get increased. A single-level index
can be too big to store in the main memory. In multilevel indexing, the main data
block breaks down into smaller blocks that can be stored in the main memory.

1. B+ Tree Indexing
2. B- Tree Indexing
 Indexing Techniques
• Hashed Indexes
• Tree Indexing (B-Tree).
• Trie indexing – (Compact
Trie).
 Indexing Techniques
• Hashed Indexes:
• Hash indexes are same as hash tables.
• Record of file are divided among buckets. A bucket is either one block or cluster of
block.
• Hashing function maps a key into a bucket number. Buckets are numbered from 0 to b –
1.
0 • 230 480
Translation of bucket number to disk block is done with the help of bucket directory.
1 460 790 460
. 580 810 580
.
.
. 321 382
. 531 392
. 651 662
. . .
b–1
Bucket Directory
 Indexing Techniques
• Tree Indexing:
• AVL tree is example of Tree Indexing.
• Indexes can be stored in tree nodes.
• Search, insertion and deletion can be easy.
• An m- way search tree reduces the height of a search tree and thus decreases no. of
disk access.
 Indexing Techniques
• Tree Indexing:
• AVL tree is example of Tree Indexing.
• Indexes can be stored in tree nodes.
• Search, insertion and deletion can be easy.
• An m- way search tree reduces the height of a search tree and thus decreases no. of
disk access.
 Indexing Techniques B G
• Trie Indexing:
i o
• Trie is an efficient information reTrieval
structure. g o
• data
It is useful when key values are of varying size.
$ g d g
• A trie is a tree of degree m>=2.
$ l
• Useful for storing words as sequence of characters. e

• Each path from root to leaf node corresponds to a r s e

word.
$ $
• Example : Big, Bigger, Biggest, Good, Google. t
 Multiway Search Tree
• Allows node to store multiple keys.
• Nodes have more than 2 children.
• All leafs are at same level.
• Each node have N children and N-1 search keys.
• Search, Insert and Delete operations can be performed on the
Multiway search tree.
• Example: B-Tree, B+-Tree, Splay tree.
 B-Tree
• A B-tree is a tree data structure that keeps data sorted and allows searches,
insertions, and deletions in logarithmic amortized time.
• Unlike self-balancing binary search trees, it is optimized for systems that read
and write large blocks of data.
• It is most commonly used in database and file systems
• A self balanced search tree with multiple keys in every node and more than
two children for every node.
• A B-tree of order M is a M-way search tree with following properties:
• Root can have 1 to M-1 keys.
• All nodes (except root node) have between (M-1)/2 and M-1 keys.
• All leaves are at same levels.
• If node have k children, then it has k-1 keys.
• Keys are stored in sorted order.
 B-Tree
•
 B-Tree
• Insertion of node in B-Tree:
• Step 1 - Check whether tree is Empty.
• Step 2 - If tree is Empty, then create a new node with new key value and insert it into
the tree as a root node.
• Step 3 - If tree is Not Empty, then find the suitable leaf node to which the new key
value is added using Binary Search Tree logic.
• Step 4 - If that leaf node has empty position, add the new key value to that leaf node in
ascending order of key value within the node.
• Step 5 - If that leaf node is already full, split that leaf node by sending middle value to
its parent node. Repeat the same until the sending value is fixed into a node.
• Step 6 - If the spilting is performed at root node then the middle value becomes new
root node for the tree and the height of the tree is increased by one.
 B-Tree
• Construct a B-Tree of order 3 for following data: 50, 30, 21, 90, 10, 13,
20,
70, 25, 92, 80.
 B-Tree
• Construct a B-Tree of order 3 for following data: 50, 30, 21, 90, 10, 13,
20,
70, 25, 92, 80.

B-tree
 B-Tree
• Construct a B-Tree of order 5 for following data: 78, 21, 14, 11, 97, 85,
74,
63, 45, 42, 57, 20, 16, 19, 32, 30, 31.
 B-Tree
• Construct a B-Tree of order 5 for following data: 78, 21, 14, 11, 97, 85,
74,
63, 45, 42, 57, 20, 16, 19, 32, 30, 31.
32

16 21 57 78

11 14 19 20 30 31 42 45 63 74 85 97

B–
Tree.
 B-Tree
• Construct a B-Tree of order 3 for following data: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10.
 B-Tree 30 80
• Deletion Operation:

50 61 73 89 95
9 18

2 5 8 11 13 17 51 56 58 68 70 75 76 78 84 86 87 90 92 97 99 100
25

• If Key to be deleted is in leaf node.

29
• Node contains keys more than min. no. of
• A node can contain a maximum of m – 1 • keys
Node contains min. no. of
keys. 43 � keys.
• Borrow from immediate Left sibling.
• A node should have a minimum � children.
𝟐
• Borrow from immediate Right sibling.
of 45

of � − 𝟏
• A node (except root node) should contain a minimum• Both Left & Right sibling have min. no. of keys.
�
• If key to be deleted is in internal
𝟐
• Facts of B-tree
keys. of degree m.
• Inorder Predecessor, Inorder Sucessor node.
• A node can have a maximum of m
children.
 B-Tree 30 80

9 17 89 95
61
75

2 5 8 11 13 18 29 43 45 50 58 70 73 76 78 84 86 87 90 92 97 99 100

58

9 30 78 89

2 5 8 11 13 17 29 43 45 50 70 73 76 84 86 87 90 92 99 100
 B+-Tree
• Insertion Operation:

During insertion following properties of B+ Tree must be followed:

1. Each node except root can have a maximum of M children and at least
ceil(M/2) children.
2. Each node can contain a maximum of M – 1 keys and a minimum of ceil(M/2) – 1 keys.
3. The root has at least two children and atleast one search key.
4. While insertion overflow of the node occurs when it contains more than M – 1 search
key values.
5. Here M is the order of B+ tree.
 B+-Tree
• Insertion Operation:
Steps for insertion in B+ Tree
Every element is inserted into a leaf node. So, go to the appropriate leaf node.
Insert the key into the leaf node in increasing order only if there is no overflow. If there is an overflow go ahead with the
following steps mentioned below to deal with overflow while maintaining the B+ Tree properties.

Properties for insertion B+ Tree

Case 1: Overflow in leaf node

1. Split the leaf node into two

nodes.
2. First node contains ceil((m-
1)/2) values.
3. Second node contains the
remaining values.
 B+-Tree Below is the illustration of inserting 15 into B+ Tree of order of 5:
• Insertion Operation:
Case 2: Overflow in non-leaf node

1. Split the non leaf node into two nodes.

2. First node contains ceil(m/2)-1 values.
3. Move the smallest among remaining to the parent.
4. Second node contains the remaining keys
 B+-Tree 17
• Deletion Operation:
4 19

1 4 17 19 45

• Facts of B+-tree of degree m.

• A node can have a maximum of m children.
• A node can contain a maximum of m – 1
keys. �
• A node should have a minimum � children.
• of 𝟐
of � − 𝟏
A node (except root node) should contain a
�
minimum
𝟐 keys.
 B+-Tree
• A B+-tree is a variation of B-tree data structure.
• Data pointers in B+-tree are stored only at leaf nodes of tree.
• B+-tree structure of a leaf node differs from the structure of internal nodes.
• Advantage of B+-tree index files:
• Automatically reorganizes itself with small, local, changes, in the face of insertions
and deletions.
• Reorganization of entire file is not required to maintain performance.
• Disadvantage of B+-trees:
• Extra insertion and deletion overhead, space overhead.
B+-Tree
 B+Tree
• Construct a B+-Tree of order 5 for following data: 30, 31, 23, 32, 22, 28,
29,
24, 15, 26, 27, 34, 39, 36. 30 24
Overflow, so
1. 23 30 31 32 22 23 24 28
split node = > 31 32
30
22 23 30 31
2. 22 32
<= Overflow,
4. 24 30
24, 15,
so split node
26
15 22 23 24 26 28 29 30
30
31 32

22 23 30 31 32 Overflow, so
24 30 27
split node
3. 28 30
26 27 28 29
15 22 23 31 32
30
24
22 23 28 30 31 32
 B-Tree
• Construct a B+-Tree of order 5 for following data: 30, 31, 23, 32, 22, 28,
24,
29, 15, 26, 27, 34, 39, 36.
Overflow, so
24 30
split node 27
26 27 28 29
15 22 31 32
30
23 24 28 30
24

15 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

24 28 30
34, 39

15 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 39
 B+Tree
• Construct a B+-Tree of order 5 for following data: 30, 31, 23, 32, 22, 28,
24,
29, 15, 26, 27, 34, 39, 36.
24 28 30
Overflow, so
36 split node
26 27 28 31 32 34 36
15 22 23 24 29 30
39

24 28 30 34

15 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 36 39

B+ - Tree
 B+Tree
• Construct a B+-Tree of order 3 for following data: 6, 19, 17, 11, 3, 12, 8,
20,
22, 23, 13, 18.

B+ - Tree
 B+Tree
• Problem: Insert the following key values 6, 16, 26, 36, 46 on a B+ tree
with order = 3.

B+ - Tree
 B-Tree vs B+ Tree
•.
 Binary Heap
• A Heap is a complete binary tree.
• In complete binary tree elements are filled
level by level from left to right.
• Bottom level may not be completely filled.
• A Binary Heap is either Min or Max Heap.
Complete Binary
• Min Heap: Value of each node is greater Tree
than or equal to the value of its parent,
with the minimum-value element at the
root.
• Max Heap: Value of each node is less than
or equal to the value of its parent, with
the maximum-value element at the root.

Min Heap Max Heap

 Binary Heap
• Insertion of node in Min-Heap or Max-Heap tree.
• Add element to bottom level of heap at the most left.
• Compare added element with its parent if they are in the correct order , stop.
• If not, swap the element with its parent and return to previous step.

Note: Min-Heap or Max-Heap tree is complete Binary tree. So elements are added at leaf from left to
right.
 Binary Heap
•Create Max Heap with following elements : 6, 2, 10, 3, 12, 60, 7, 200,
8.
• Insert 6 : 6 Insert 2 : 6 Insert 10:

2
• Insert 3: Insert 12:

• Insert 60: Insert 7:

 Binary Heap
•Create Max Heap with following elements : 6, 2, 10, 3, 12, 60, 7, 200,
8.
• Insert 200:

• Insert 8:
 Binary Heap
•Create Min Heap with following elements : 6, 2, 10, 3, 12, 60, 7, 200,
8.
 Binary Heap
• Deletion of node in Min-Heap or Max-Heap tree.
• Replace the value of root with the value of rightmost leaf and remove leaf from tree.
• Now check whether the tree follows the Heap property.
• If not, swap the element with its parent and return to previous step. For Max-Heap if
parent is less than both the children then replace the root with larger child.
 Heap Sort
• From the unsorted list create a Heap tree (Min or Max).
• Once Heap is created, now select the first element(root) and add it to
array.
• Remove first element and rearrange the Heap and repeat above step.
• Heap sort algorithm:
1. Create binary tree from the given elements.
2. Convert binary tree to Min Heap or Max Heap.
3. Delete the root element from the Heap.
4. Add deleted element to array.
5. Rearrange the Heap and repeat the step 3 to 5 till Heap is empty.
6. If heap is empty , display sorted list from array and stop.
 Heap Sort
• Sort numbers in
ascending
order using
heapsort :
50, 2 , 1, 84, 12,
4, 102.
• Create Max-Heap:
• Sort
Heap Sort
numbers
ascending
in order
using heapsort :
50, 2 , 1, 84, 12, 4,
102.
• Sorting Data:
Sort the numbers using heapsort: 12, 45, 21, 76, 83, 97, 82, 54.
Sort the numbers using heapsort: 25, 4, 70, 1, 60, 10, 85, 11.
 Questions
• Insert keys to a 5-way B-tree: 3, 7, 9, 23, 45, 1, 5, 14, 25, 24, 13, 11, 8, 19, 4, 31, 35,
56.
• Construct B+ tree of order 3 : 1, 42, 28, 21, 31, 10, 17, 7, 31, 25, 20, 18.
• Explain Heap tree, Max-Heap & Min-Heap.
• Write Algorithm & Pseudo code for Inserting Element in Min Heap and Max Heap.
• Create Min Heap & Max Heap for given data: 10, 20, 15, 12, 25, 30, 14, 2, 5, 4.
• Delete root node of above Heap tree and Re-arrange Heap tree.
• Write algorithm to sort the numbers in ascending order using heapsort.
• Sort the numbers using heapsort: 18, 13, 12, 22, 15, 24, 10, 16, 19, 14, 30.