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COMPUTER NETWORKS

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UNIT-3

12.1
 Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers

12.2
 Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter

12.3
 RANDOM ACCESS

In random access or contention methods, no station is superior to another station and none is

assigned the control over another. No station permits, or does not permit, another station to

send. At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a procedure defined by the protocol

to make a decision on whether or not to send.

Topics discussed in this section:

ALOHA

Carrier Sense Multiple Access

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

12.4
 Frames in a pure ALOHA network

12.5
 Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

12.6
 Example 12.1

The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a maximum of 600 km apart. If we assume that
8
signals propagate at 3 × 10 m/s, we find
5 8
Tp = (600 × 10 ) / (3 × 10 ) = 2 ms.

Now we can find the value of TB for different values of

K.

a. For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to|

generate a random number with a value of 0 or 1. This

means that TB is either 0 ms (0 × 2) or 2 ms (1 × 2),

based on the outcome of the random variable.

12.7
 Example 12.1 (continued)

b. For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB

can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on the outcome of the

random variable.

c. For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This

means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, . . . , 14 ms, based on the

outcome of the random variable.

d. We need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to

10.

12.8
 Figure 12.5 Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

12.9
 Example 12.2

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the

requirement to make this frame collision-free?

Solution

Average frame transmission time Tfr is 200 bits/200 kbps or 1 ms. The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms =

2 ms. This means no station should send later than 1 ms before this station starts transmission and

no station should start sending during the one 1-ms period that this station is sending.

12.10
 Note

The throughput for pure ALOHA is

−2G
S=G×e .

The maximum throughput

Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).

12.11
 Example 12.3

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the

throughput if the system (all stations together) produces

a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second

c. 250 frames per second.

Solution

The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.

a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1

frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case

−2 G
S = G× e or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent). This means

that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 = 135 frames. Only

135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

12.12
 Example 12.3 (continued)

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is

(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this

−2G
case S = G × e or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent). This

means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that

only 92 frames out of 500 will probably survive. Note

that this is the maximum throughput case,

percentagewise.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case

2G
S = G × e − or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent). This means

that the throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38. Only 38

frames out of 250 will probably survive.

12.13
 Figure 12.6 Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

12.14
 Note

The throughput for slotted ALOHA is

−G
S=G×e .

The maximum throughput

Smax = 0.368 when G = 1.

12.15
 Figure 12.7 Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

12.16
 Example 12.4

A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the

throughput if the system (all stations together) produces

a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second

c. 250 frames per second.

Solution

The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.

a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1

frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case

−G
S = G× e or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent). This means

that the throughput is 1000 × 0.0368 = 368 frames.

Only 386 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

12.17
 Example 12.4 (continued)

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is

(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this

−G
case S = G × e or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent). This

means that the throughput is 500 × 0.0303 = 151.

Only 151 frames out of 500 will probably survive.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case

−G
S = G × e or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent). This means

that the throughput is 250 × 0.195 = 49. Only 49

frames out of 250 will probably survive.

12.18
 Figure 12.8 Space/time model of the collision in CSMA

12.19
 Figure 12.9 Vulnerable time in CSMA

12.20
 Figure 12.10 Behavior of three persistence methods

12.21
 Figure 12.11 Flow diagram for three persistence methods

12.22
 Figure 12.12 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

12.23
 Figure 12.13 Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

12.24
 Example 12.5

A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps. If the maximum propagation time

(including the delays in the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a jamming signal, as we

see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the minimum size of the frame?

Solution

The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs. This means, in the worst case, a station

needs to transmit for a period of 51.2 μs to detect the collision. The minimum size of the frame is 10

Mbps × 51.2 μs = 512 bits or 64 bytes. This is actually the minimum size of the frame for Standard

Ethernet.

12.25
 Figure 12.14 Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

12.26
 Figure 12.15 Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

12.27
 Figure 12.16 Timing in CSMA/CA

12.28
 Note

In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to define the priority of a

station or a frame.

12.29
 Note

In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart

the timer of the contention window;

it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle.

12.30
 Figure 12.17 Flow diagram for CSMA/CA

12.31
 12-2 CONTROLLED ACCESS

In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station has the right to

send. A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations. We discuss three

popular controlled-access methods.

Topics discussed in this section:

Reservation

Polling

Token Passing

12.32
 Figure 12.18 Reservation access method

12.33
 Figure 12.19 Select and poll functions in polling access method

12.34
 Figure 12.20 Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method

12.35
 12-3 CHANNELIZATION

Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is

shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations. In this section, we

discuss three channelization protocols.

Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

12.36
 Note

We see the application of all these methods in Chapter 16 when

we discuss cellular phone systems.

12.37
 Figure 12.21 Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

12.38
 Note

In FDMA, the available bandwidth

of the common channel is divided into bands that are separated by

guard bands.

12.39
 Figure 12.22 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

12.40
 Note

In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is timeshared

between different stations.

12.41
 Note

In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions simultaneously.

12.42
 Figure 12.23 Simple idea of communication with code

12.43
 Figure 12.24 Chip sequences

12.44
 Figure 12.25 Data representation in CDMA

12.45
 Figure 12.26 Sharing channel in CDMA

12.46
 Figure 12.27 Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

12.47
 Figure 12.28 Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA

12.48
 Figure 12.29 General rule and examples of creating Walsh tables

12.49
 Note

m
The number of sequences in a Walsh table needs to be N = 2 .

12.50
 Example 12.6

Find the chips for a network with

a. Two stations b. Four stations

Solution

We can use the rows of W2 and W4 in Figure 12.29:

a. For a two-station network, we have

[+1 +1] and [+1 −1].

b. For a four-station network we have

[+1 +1 +1 +1], [+1 −1 +1 −1],

[+1 +1 −1 −1], and [+1 −1 −1 +1].

12.51
 Example 12.7

What is the number of sequences if we have 90 stations in our network?

Solution
m 7
The number of sequences needs to be 2 . We need to choose m = 7 and N = 2 or 128. We can then

use 90

of the sequences as the chips.

12.52
 Example 12.8

Prove that a receiving station can get the data sent by a specific sender if it multiplies the entire

data on the channel by the sender’s chip code and then divides it by the number of stations.

Solution

Let us prove this for the first station, using our previous four-station example. We can say that the

data on the channel

D = (d1 ⋅ c1 + d2 ⋅ c2 + d3 ⋅ c3 + d4 ⋅ c4).

The receiver which wants to get the data sent by station 1 multiplies these data by c1.

12.53
 Example 12.8 (continued)

When we divide the result by N, we get d1 .

12.54