Introduction to Logical Connectives

Definition:
Logical connectives (also called logical operators) are symbols or
words used to connect statements or propositions to form more
complex expressions.
Purpose: These connectives help in constructing logical arguments
and reasoning
Types of Logical Connectives
• Basic Connectives: AND (Conjunction): Combines two statements and
is true only if both statements are true.
• OR (Disjunction): Combines two statements and is true if at least one
of the statements is true.
• NOT (Negation): Inverts the truth value of a statement.
• IF...THEN (Implication): Represents a conditional statement, where if
the first statement is true, the second one must also be true.
• IF AND ONLY IF (Biconditional): States that two statements are either
both true or both false.
Truth Tables
•Purpose: Truth tables are used to represent the logical relationships between statements.
•Example: Show the truth table for the basic connectives (AND, OR, NOT, etc.).

A B A AND B A OR B NOT A
T T T T F
T F F T F
F T F T T
F F F F T
AND (Conjunction)
• Symbol: ∧
• Definition: True if both statements are true.
• The AND operator takes two statements (A and B) and returns true if
and only if both A and B are true. If either A or B (or both) are false,
the result of A ∧ B is false.
• Example: If A is "It is raining" and B is "I have an umbrella," A ∧ B is
true only if both are true.
OR (Disjunction)

• Symbol: ∨
• Definition: True if at least one statement is true.
• Example: If A is "I will study" and B is "I will watch TV," A ∨ B is true if
either one or both are true.
NOT (Negation)

• Symbol: ¬
• Definition: Inverts the truth value of a statement.
• Example: If A is "I am hungry," ¬A is "I am not hungry."
IF...THEN (Implication)

• Symbol: →
• Definition: True unless the first statement is true and the second is
false.
• Example: If A is "It is raining," and B is "I will take an umbrella," A → B
means if it's raining, then I will take an umbrella.
IF AND ONLY IF (Biconditional)

• Symbol: ↔
• Definition: True when both statements are either true or false.
• Example: If A is "It is raining," and B is "The ground is wet," A ↔ B
means the ground is wet if and only if it is raining.
Combining Logical Connectives
• Complex Expressions: Logical connectives can be combined to form
complex logical statements.
• Example: (A ∧ B) → ¬C, which means if both A and B are true, then C
is false
Applications of Logical
Connectives
• Mathematics: Used in proofs and problem-solving.
• Computer Science: Fundamental in programming and algorithms
(e.g., control flow, Boolean logic).
• Philosophy: Analyzing arguments and logical reasoning.
1. Truth Table for AND
(Conjunction)
A B A∧B
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Explanation: The result (A ∧ B) is true only when both A

2-Truth Table for OR
(Disjunction)
A B A∨B
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Explanation: The result (A ∨ B) is true if at least one of A or B is true.

3-Truth Table for NOT (Negation)

A ¬A
T F
F T

Explanation: The result (¬A) is the opposite of A. If A is true, ¬A is false, and vice versa.
4. Truth Table for IF...THEN
(Implication)

A B A→B
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Explanation: The result (A → B) is false only when A is true and B is false.

5. Truth Table for IF AND ONLY IF
(Biconditional)

A B A↔B
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Explanation: The result (A ↔ B) is true when both A and B are either true or false.
 6. Truth Table for (A ∧ B) ∨ C
A B C A∧B (A ∧ B) ∨ C
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T F T
T F F F F
F T T F T
F T F F F
F F T F T
F F F F F

Explanation: This table shows the results of a combination of logical operations. The conjunction (A ∧ B) is
evaluated first, and then the disjunction (A ∧ B) ∨ C.
 7. Truth Table for ¬(A ∨ B)

A B A∨B ¬(A ∨ B)
T T T F
T F T F
F T T F
F F F T

Explanation: The result (¬(A ∨ B)) negates the disjunction of A and B. It’s true only when both A and B are false.
 8. Truth Table for (A → B) ∧ (B →
C) (A → B) ∧
A B C A→B B→C (B → C)
T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F T F T F
T F F F T F
F T T T T T
F T F T F F
F F T T T T
F F F T T T

Explanation: This is a more complex example involving two implications (A → B) and (B → C), and
their conjunction (AND).
1. Example with AND and OR:

• Let's use a scenario where we combine both AND (∧) and OR (∨)
operators.
• Statement:
• A: "I will go to the park."
• B: "It is sunny."
• C: "I have free time."
• Now, let's combine these with AND and OR:
• (A ∧ B) ∨ C: "I will go to the park AND it is sunny, OR I have free time."
Truth Table
A B C A∧B (A ∧ B) ∨ C
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T F T
T F F F F
F T T F T
F T F F F
F F T F T
F F F F F
2. Example with AND and NOT:
• Statement:
• A: "I will go swimming."
• B: "The pool is open."
• Now, let's combine these with AND and NOT:
• A ∧ ¬B: "I will go swimming AND the pool is NOT open."
Truth Table
3. Example with AND and
IMPLICATION:
• Statement:
• A: "I will study."
• B: "I will pass the exam."
• C: "I will get a reward."
• Now, let's combine these with AND and implication:
• (A → B) ∧ C: "If I study, I will pass the exam AND I will get a reward."
Truth Table
4. Example with AND, OR, and
Biconditional:
• Let’s add in the biconditional operator for a more advanced example.
• Statement:
• A: "It is sunny."
• B: "I will go to the park."
• C: "My friend will join me."
• Now, let's combine these with AND, OR, and biconditional:
• (A ↔ B) ∧ (B ∨ C): "It is sunny if and only if I will go to the park, AND
I will go to the park OR my friend will join me."
Truth Table