Chapter One

introduction to Data communication and

computer Networking

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 1.1 What is a computer network?

• A computer network is a system in which a

number of independent computers are linked
together to share data and peripherals, such as
files and printers.
• In the modern world, computer networks have
become almost indispensable. All major
businesses, and governmental and educational
institutions make use of computer networks to
such an extent that it is now difficult to imagine a
world without them.
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 Definition cont…

Networking - the interconnection of workstations, peripherals,

terminals and other devices.
Whatis.com: “In information technology, networking is the
construction, design, and use of network, including the physical
(cabling, hub, bridge, switch, router, and so forth), the selection and
use of telecommunication protocol and computer software for using
and managing the network, and the establishment of operation
policies
04/25/25 and procedures related to the network.” 3
 Benefits of Network Computing

Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs.

Computer networks achieve these goals in
four primary ways:
I. Sharing Information (Or Data)
II. Sharing Hardware (Peripheral Devices)
III. Sharing Programs/Software
IV. Centralizing Administration And Support

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 Basics of Data Communication
Data transmission is the process of conveying data
between two points by way of a communication
medium. A wide variety of media are available :
 Bounded media confine the data to specific physical
pathways. Common examples of bounded media are wire
and optical fiber cables.
 unbounded media transmit the data-carrying signal through
space, independent of a cable. Broadcast radio and
television are examples of unbounded media

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NOTE : Electrical cable types are frequently referred
to as “copper" because that metal is the most
frequently used conductor. You may hear fiber
optic cables called simply "fiber" or "glass".
 Three Basic elements of any
communication Process:
 Sender (source): Creates the message to be
transmitted
 Media: Carries the message e.g. UTP, Fiber,
telephone line
 Receiver (sink): Receives the message.

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• The sender and receiver in data
communications are usually computer
terminals, peripheral devices like
printers, plotters, disks etc

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 The term communication can be defined as the
process of transferring messages between
entities. Based on what these two entities are,
there are three basic types of communication:
I. Human-to-Human
II. Computer-to-computer
III. Human-to-Computer
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 • In all the three cases, three basic
elements can be identified.
The source (the sender)
The media (the channel)
The destination (the receiver)

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 1.3 Fundamentals of Information
Transmission media and coding
• A message should first be encoded in such
a way that it can be transmitted through a
channel (medium), it is then transmitted,
and finally, it is decoded into a form that
can be understood by the destination at
the other end. This holds true for voice
communication, or data communication

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 Cont…

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Des
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• Data communication involves transporting
data from one point to another. This is an
instance of computer-to-computer
communication, i.e., both the source and
the destination are computer devices, and
the transmission media may be telephone
lines, satellite links, microwave links, etc.

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 Transmission mode

Simplex :
 Communication can take place in only one
direction like one-way traffic. Devices
connected to such a circuit are either a
send-only or a receive only device e.g., a
line printer. This is very inadequate
because the sender needs an
acknowledgement, control or error signal.
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• HALF-DUPLEX: transmits data in both
directions but only in one direction at a
time. It can alternatively send and
receive data. It requires two wires. It is
good for voice communication because
only one person is supposed to speak at
a time.
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Simplex
Sender Receiver

Half-duplex
Sender Receiver
(Sender )

(Receiver)

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FULL DUPLEX:
 It allows information to flow simultaneously in
both directions on the transmission path. It is
an advantage over half-duplex which requires
the lines to be turned-around each time the
direction is reversed and half duplex is
unacceptable in some applications which
require simultaneous transmission in both
directions.
Sender Receiver
and and
Receiver Sender

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 1.4: Network Topologies

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• The following four types of physical topologies
are frequently used in computer networking:
1.Star 2. Bus 3. Ring 4. Hybrid
A LAN is a high-speed communications system
designed to link computers and other data
processing devices together within a small
geographic area such as a workgroup, department,
or a single floor of a multistory building. Several
LANs can also be interconnected within a building
or campus of buildings to extend connectivity.

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 1. Bus Topology

• In a bus topology, all devices attach to the same

transmission medium. The medium has a
physical beginning and end. All buses are
implemented using electrical cable, usually
coax, and the ends of the cable must be
terminated with a terminating resistor that
matches the impedance of the cable. The
terminating resistor prevents data reflections
from coming across as data corruption. The bus
is considered a multipoint system because all
devices tap into the same backbone cable.
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• An important characteristic to remember in bus
topologies is that all data signals are broadcast
throughout the bus structure.
• In the following diagram, if node 1 sends a signal
to node 3, the signal propagates for the length of
the cable and is seen by nodes 2 and 4 as well. It
is necessary to have an addressing mechanism so
that each node understands which messages it is
to receive and which to ignore.

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 Benefits of Bus topology

Cabling costs are minimized because of the

common trunk.
Disadvantages of Bus topology
 Difficult to trouble shoot because no central
distribution points exist.
 Cable breaks can disable the entire segment
because they remove the required
termination from each of the two cable
fragments.

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 2. Star Topology
In a star topology all stations are wired to
a central wiring concentrator called a
hub.
Similar to a bus topology, packets sent
from one station to another are
repeated to all ports on the hub. This
allows all stations to see each packet
sent on the network, but only the station
a packet is addressed to pays attention
to it.
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The diagram illustrates a star topology LAN --
which is a more robust topology than the bus
topology. In a star topology, each station is
connected to a central wiring concentrator, or
hub, by an individual length of twisted pair
cable. The cable is connected to the station's NIC
at one end and to a port on the hub at the other.
The hubs are placed in wiring closets centrally
located in a building.

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 Advantages of Stars topology

Most modern cabling systems are designed in

a star physical topology. The benefits of the
star topology are:
Each device is isolated on its own cable.
It is a reliable network and easy to modify
 Easy to add new workstation.
A node can fail without affecting other nodes

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 Advantage cont…
The hub or switch is slightly more expensive
All data goes through the central point, which
can be equipped with diagnostic devices that
make it easy to trouble shoot and manage the
network.
Hierarchical organization allows isolation of
traffic on the channel.

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 Disadvantages of Star topology

Because point-to-point wiring is utilized for

each node, more cable is required.
Hub failures results in a shutdown of the
entire network

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 3. Ring Topology
The ring topology is a physical, closed
loop consisting of point-to-point links.
In the diagram, you can see how each
node on the ring acts as a repeater. It
receives a transmission from the
previous node and amplifies it before
passing it on.

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 Benefits of Ring topology
Ring topology has the following advantage:
Each repeater duplicates the data signals so
that very little signal degradation occurs.
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 Disadvantages of Ring topology
Ring topology has the following disadvantages:
A break in the ring can disable the entire network.
Many ring designs incorporate extra cabling that
can be switched in if a primary cable fails.
Because each node must have the capability of
functioning as a repeater, the networking devices
tend to be more expensive.

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 4. Hybrid Topology

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• The hybrid topology scheme combines multiple
topologies into one large topology. The hybrid
network is common in large wide-area
networks. Because each topology has its own
strengths and weaknesses, several different
types can be combined for maximum
effectiveness.

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 Benefits of Hybrid topology

Hybrid topology has the following advantages:

One company can combine the benefits of
several different types of topologies.
Workgroup efficiency and traffic can be
customized

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 Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

The disadvantages of hybrid topology include

the following:
Devices on one topology cannot be placed
into another topology without some hardware
changes

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 Host connectivity
A. Peer-to-Peer Networks
• This section covers peer-to-peer networks.
When LAN and WAN technologies are used,
many computers are interconnected to
provide services to their users. To accomplish
this, networked computers take on different
roles or functions in relation to each other.
Some types of applications require computers
to function as equal partners. Other types of
applications distribute their work so that one
computer functions to serve a number of
others in an unequal relationship.
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• Two computers generally use request and
response protocols to communicate with each
other.

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• One computer issues a request for a service, and a second
computer receives and responds to that request.

• The requestor acts like a client and the responder acts

like a server. In a peer-to-peer network, networked
computers act as equal partners, or peers.

• As peers, each computer can take on the client function

or the server function. Computer A may request for a file
from Computer B, which then sends the file to Computer
A. Computer A acts like the client and Computer B acts
like the server. At a later time, Computers A and B can
reverse roles.

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• In a peer-to-peer network:
• individual users control their own resources.
• The users may decide to share certain files with other
users.
• The users may also require passwords before they allow
others to access their resources. Since individual users
make these decisions, there is no central point of control
or administration in the network.

• In addition, individual users must back up their own

systems to be able to recover from data loss in case of
failures. When a computer acts as a server, the user of
that machine may experience reduced performance as
the machine serves the requests made by other systems.

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• Peer-to-peer networks are relatively easy to install and operate. No
additional equipment is necessary beyond a suitable operating
system installed on each computer. Since users control their own
resources, no dedicated administrators are needed.

• As networks grow, peer-to-peer relationships become increasingly

difficult to coordinate. A peer-to-peer network works well with ten
or fewer computers. Since peer-to-peer networks do not scale well,
their efficiency decreases rapidly as the number of computers on
the network increases.

• Also, individual users control access to the resources on their

computers, which means security may be difficult to maintain. The
client/server model of networking can be used to overcome the
limitations of the peer-to-peer network
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 B. Client/Server Networks
• In a client/server arrangement, network services are
located on a dedicated computer called a server.
• The server responds to the requests of clients. The server
is a central computer that is continuously available to
respond to requests from clients for file, print,
application, and other services.
• Most network operating systems adopt the form of a
client/server relationship. Typically, desktop computers
function as clients and one or more computers with
additional processing power, memory, and specialized
software function as servers.

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-

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• Servers are designed to handle requests from many
clients simultaneously.
• Before a client can access the server resources, the
client must be identified and be authorized to use the
resource.
• Each client is assigned an account name and password
that is verified by an authentication service.
• The authentication service guards access to the
network. With the centralization of user accounts,
security, and access control, server-based networks
simplify the administration of large networks.

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• The concentration of network resources such as files, printers, and
applications on servers also makes it easier to back-up and maintain
the data.
• Resources can be located on specialized, dedicated servers for
easier access. Most client/server systems also include ways to
enhance the network with new services that extend the usefulness
of the network.
• The centralized functions in a client/server network has substantial
advantages and some disadvantages. Although a centralized server
enhances security, ease of access, and control
• it introduces a single point of failure into the network. Without an
operational server, the network cannot function at all.
• Servers require a trained, expert staff member to administer and
maintain. Server systems also require additional hardware and
specialized software that add to the cost

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer and
Client/Server Networks

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 Advantage and disadvantage cont…

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1.6: Basic Data Communication Hardware Devices

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1.6: Basic Data Communication Hardware Devices

Symbols for Networking Devices

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 Devices cont…

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 1.6.1. NIC /Network Interface
Card/Adapter Card:

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 NIC cont…
• A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides network
communication capabilities to and from a PC.
• On desktop computer systems, it is a printed circuit
board that resides in a slot on the motherboard and
provides an interface connection to the network media.
• On laptop computer systems, it is commonly integrated
into the laptop or available on a small, credit card-sized
PCMCIA card.
– PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card
International Association.

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 NIC cont…
• The function of a NIC is to connect a host
device to the network medium. A NIC is a
printed circuit board that fits into the
expansion slot on the motherboard or
peripheral device of a computer. The NIC is
also referred to as a network adapter. On
laptop or notebook computers a NIC is the
size of a credit card.

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 NIC and Modem Installation
• Modem – Modulator/Demodulator
– Used to convert data from digital to analog and vice versa
– Modems could be internal or external
– For dialup networking we use modems
• NICs must be installed before a PC can communicate with other
PCs on a network
• Situations that require NIC installation include the following:
– Installation of a NIC on a PC that does not already have one
– Replacement of a malfunctioning or damaged NIC
– Upgrade from a 10-Mbps NIC to a 10/100/1000-Mbps NIC
– Change to a different type of NIC, such as wireless
– Installation of a secondary, or backup, NIC for network security reasons

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 1.6.2. Hub
• Hubs are actually multi port repeaters
• Change the network topology from a linear bus
to a star
Three basic types:
1. Passive – no boost, no clean and no power
2. Active - needs power to amplify the incoming
signal
3. Intelligent - microprocessor chip and diagnostic
capabilities

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 1.6.3. Repeaters

• A repeater regenerates and retimes network

signals at the bit level to allow them to travel
a longer distance
• Too much latency on the LAN increases the
number of late collisions and makes the LAN
less efficient

57
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 1.6.4: Bridges

• Bridges and switches operate at the Data Link layer.

• When a bridge receives a frame on the network, the destination

MAC address is looked up in the bridge table to determine whether
to filter, flood, or copy the frame onto another segment. This
decision process occurs as follows:
• If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the
bridge will not send the frame onto other segments. This process is
known as filtering.
• If the destination device is on a different segment, the bridge
forwards the frame to the appropriate segment.
• If the destination address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge
forwards the frame to all segments except the one on which it was
received. This process is known as flooding.
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 1.6.5: Switches
A switch has many ports with many network segments
connected to them.
A switch chooses the port to which the destination device is
connected.
Alleviates congestion in LANs by reducing the size of collision
domains, reducing traffic and increasing bandwidth.
Two basic operations:
1. Switching data frames.
2. Build and maintain switching tables and search for loops.

Switches operate at much higher speeds than bridges and can

support new functionality, such as virtual LANs.
Switches is used to divide the network into collision domains
what is broadcast domain?
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 Access layer switches
• Some more example

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 1.6.6: Router
A router is a special type of computer. It has the
same basic components as a standard desktop
PC.
 It has a CPU, memory, a system bus, and various
input/output interfaces.
However, routers are designed to perform some
very specific functions that are not typically
performed by desktop computers. For example,
routers connect and allow communication
between two networks and determine the best
path for data to travel through the connected
networks. How does it achieve this task?
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 Router cont…

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