2.

1 What is communication
•Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another.
•Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how we may communicate the subject
becomes a lot more complex.
• There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time.
•The different categories of communication are:
•Spoken or verbal communication:
•face-to-face, telephone, radio or television or other media.
•Non-verbal communication:
•body language, gestures, how we dress or act – even our scent.
•Written communication
• letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.
•Visualizations:
•graphs, charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can communicate messages.

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•Communication theory states that communication involves a sender and a receiver
(or receivers) conveying information through a communication channel.
•The desired outcome or goal of any communication process is understanding.
•The process of interpersonal communication cannot be regarded as a
phenomena which simply 'happens', but should be seen as a process which
involves participants negotiating their role in this process, whether consciously or
unconsciously.
•In face-to-face communication the roles of the sender and receiver are not distinct
as both parties communicate with each other, even if in very subtle ways such as
through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body language.
• There are many other obvious ways that we communicate (perhaps even
unintentionally) with others, for example the tone of our voice can give clues to
our mood or emotional state, whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken
message.
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Data Communication
 Communication is the act of conveying meaningful
information
 Requires a Sender, a Message, and an intended Recipient
 Establishing the Rules
 Communication is successful when the intended
message has been received & confirmed

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 The platform for communication
 Elements of communication
– 3 common elements of communication
• Message source
• The channel
• Message destination

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The platform for communication
 Communicating the message
– Data is sent across a network in small “chunks” called
segments, it advantages are:
– Multiplexing
– Reliability

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Chapter 2: Data Communication
Data Transmission
 Data Transmission
 is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a
point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication
channel.
 is a method by which computer networks send electrical
signals.
 Transmission is characterized by:
 Direction of data exchange
 Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex connections
 Transmission Mode: the number of bits sent simultaneously
 Serial and parallel transmission
 Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver
 Synchronous and asynchronous transmission

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 Data Transmission

Transmission modes according to direction of exchange

Simplex
•
data flows in only in one direction
•
from the transmitter to the receiver
•
E.g. from the computer to the printer

Half-Duplex(semi-duplex)

data flows in one direction or the other,

but not both at the same time

Full-Duplex

data flow in both directions simultaneously

bandwidth is divided in two for each direction

if the same transmission medium is used for both directions
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 Figure 2.1 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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Data Transmission
Transmission modes based on number of bits sent simultaneously


Parallel connection

simultaneous transmission of N bits

These bits are sent simultaneously over N different channels

The type of transmission mode most computers use is parallel
connection
Serial connection

the data are sent one bit at a time

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 Data Transmission

Transmission modes based synchronization

are ways of tackling problem in synchronization

what problem

problems that arise with a parallel-type connection, serial connections are
normally used

receiver can not necessarily distinguish the character or bit sequences
because the bits are sent one after the other in serial connection
Asynchronous connection
•works in spurts and must insert a start bit before each data character and a stop bit

at its termination to inform the receiver where it begins and ends.

• Most network protocols (such as Ethernet, SONET, Token Ring) use synchronous

transmission whereas asynchronous transmission is used commonly for

communications over telephone lines.
Synchronous connection
•Data transfer method in which a continuous stream of data signals is accompanied

by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure that the transmitter

and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another.
•The data is sent in blocks (called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals.

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 Data Transmission

Analog and Digital Transmission
•Data can be analog or digital.
•The term analog data refers to information that is continuous;
digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
•Analog data take on continuous values.
•Digital data take on discrete values.
•Signals can be analog or digital.
•Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range;
digital signals can have only a limited number of values.

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Comparison of analog and digital signals

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 Data Transmission

Analog transmission

Analogue data transmission consists of sending information over a physical
transmission medium in the form of a wave.

It’s a wave to transport data by modification of one of its characteristics
(amplitude, frequency or phase)

Three types of analogue transmission are defined depending on which parameter
of the carrier wave is being varied:

Transmission by amplitude modulation of the carrier wave

Transmission by frequency modulation of the carrier wave

Transmission by phase modulation of the carrier wave


The process of impressing low-frequency information to be transmitted on to a
high-frequency wave, called the carrier wave, by changing the characteristics of
either its amplitude, frequency, or phase angle is called modulation.
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Transmission by amplitude modulation of the carrier wave
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to
create signal elements.
Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.

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Transmission by frequency modulation of the carrier wave
 In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
represent data .
The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one
signal element, but changes for the next signal element if the data element
changes.
Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.

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Transmission by phase modulation of the carrier wave
 In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more
different signal elements.
Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes.
Today, phase modulation is more common than frequency and amplitude
modulation.

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 Data Transmission

Digital Transmission

Sending of information over a physical communications media in the form of
digital signals

As digital information cannot be sent directly in the form of 0s and 1s, it must
be encoded in the form of a signal with two states

Example:

two voltage levels with respect to earth

the difference in voltage between two wires

the presence/absence of current in a wire

the presence/absence of light etc…

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Data Transmission

Signal Encoding

Signal must be encoded to facilitate its transmission on the physical
medium.

Encoding systems for this purpose divided into two:

Two-level encoding: the signal can only take on a strictly negative
or strictly positive value (-X or +X, where X represents a value of
the physical quantity being used to transport the signal)

Three-level encoding: the signal can take on a strictly negative, null
or strictly positive value (-X, 0 or +X)

Encoding System examples

NRZ Encoding

NRZI Encoding

Manchester Encoding

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NRZ Encoding
Non return to zero encoding is the simplest digital signal representing a
bit sequence by using just two voltage levels and represent a 1 by higher
voltage level and 0 by lower voltage level.

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NRZI Encoding
Non return to zero inverted is another simple encoding method, which
change level for 1 bit and stays at the same for zero bit.

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Manchester Encoding
In Manchester encoding 0 and 1 bit are represented in a clock cycle by the
figure shown below

Example use of Manchester encoding

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…
Digital signals also can be modulated or encoded to represent binary data.
Following are some of the techniques used in current state strategies:

Amplitude shift keying: encodes data using two signals of same

frequency but different amplitudes. For example, a binary a might be
represented by a 1volt signal and a binary 1might be represented by a 4
volts signal.

Frequency shift keying: encodes binary data by varying the signal's

frequency between two or more values. For example, the signal used for
representing a binary 0 would be in one frequency and the signal for a
binary 1 would be in some other frequency.

Phase shift keying: encodes binary data by varying the phase of the
signal to indicate a value. For example, a 180" phase-shifted signal could
represent binary 1, and signal without phase shift could represents a
binary 0. Figure illustrates the three keying schemes.
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04/25/2025 Chapter 2: Data Communication 23
Components of the network

Network Components

Hardware

Software

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 Components of the network
Network infrastructure is the platform that supports the human network.



Provides the stable and reliable channel over which communications
can occur
As a component Data Network consists Devices, Media & Services



Devices and media are the physical elements or hardware of the
network

Services and processes are the communication programs, called
software, that run on the networked devices
Service provides information in response to a request



network applications like e-mail hosting services and web hosting
services
Processes provide the functionality that directs and moves the messages


through the network

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Components of the network
End Devices and their Role in the Network
 End devices form interface with human network & communications
network
 Example of end devices…
•Role of end devices:
end devices are referred to as hosts, and can act as:
 Client
 Server
 Both client and server

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Components of the network
End Devices and their Role in the Network

Example of end devices

Computers (work stations, laptops, file servers, web servers)

Network printers

VoIP phones

Security cameras

Mobile handheld devices (wireless barcode scanners, PDAs)
Software installed on the host determines which role it plays
Servers are hosts that have software installed that enables them to provide
information and services, like e-mail or web pages, to other hosts on the
network.
Clients are hosts that have software installed that enables them to request
and display the information obtained from the server.
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Components of the network
Intermediary device & their role
Provides connectivity and ensures data flows across network
Networks rely on intermediary devices to provide connectivity

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 Components of the network
Intermediary device & their role
Example of intermediary devices:

Network Access Devices (Hubs, switches, and wireless access points)

Internetworking Devices (Routers)

Communication Servers and Modems

Security Devices (firewalls, IDS(Intrusion Detection System), IPS(Intrusion
Prevention Systems))
Functions

Regenerate and retransmit data signals

Maintain information about what pathways exist

Notify other devices of errors and communication failures

Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure

Classify and direct messages according to QoS priorities

Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings
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Transmission media

 Transmission media is a medium through which data can be transmitted

over long distance .
 The speed or rate at which data is transmitted over a communication
channel is denoted by a parameter called bandwidth.
 Transmission media having higher bandwidth are used now-a-days
for better performance.
Classes of Transmission Media
 Conducted or guided media
 use a conductor such as a wire or a fiber optic cable to move the
signal from sender to receiver
 Wireless or unguided media
 use radio waves of different frequencies and do not need a wire or
cable conductor to transmit signals

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 Guided Transmission Media

 Data transmission is through solid medium (wired system). Different

types of cables are used to connect devices
 Commonly used cable types are:
• Twisted pair
• Coaxial cable
• Optical fiber

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 Twisted pair
• Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone
communications and most modern Ethernet networks.
• A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data.
• The pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise
generated by adjacent pairs

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 Twisted pair cable UTP

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 Cont’d…
Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist:
• unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
• shielded twisted-pair (STP)

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 Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

• Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable is a

common networking media. It consists of four
pairs of thin, copper wires covered in color-
coded plastic insulation that are twisted
together
• The connector used on a UTP cable is called a
registered jack 45 (RJ-45) connector.

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 UTP cable

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Advantage of UTP
• It has a small diameter and does not require
grounding
• the easiest type of cable to install
• least expensive type of networking media
• the connector is the easiest to build
Disadvantage of UTP
• more susceptible to electrical noise its
• maximum run length is less than that allowed
for coaxial and fiber-optic cables.
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 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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 Crimping UTP Cable
• Common Ethernet network cable are straight
and crossover cable.
• This Ethernet network cable is made of 4 pair
high performance cable that consists twisted
pair conductors that used for data
transmission.
• Both end of cable is called RJ45 connector.

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• The cable can be categorized as Cat 5, Cat 5e, Cat 6
UTP cable.
• Cat 5 UTP cable can support 10/100 Mbps Ethernet
network, whereas Cat 5e and Cat 6 UTP cable can
support Ethernet network running at 10/100/1000
Mbps.
• Straight and crossover cable can be Cat 5, Cat 5e or
Cat 6 UTP cable, the only difference is each type will
have different wire arrangement in the cable for
serving different purposes.

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 Straight Cable

• You usually use straight cable to connect different type of

devices. This type of cable will be used most of the time and
can be used to:
1. Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.
2. Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
3. Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
4. Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally
used for expanding network)
5. Connect 2 switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink
port and the other one using normal port.
• Straight cable crimping : Both side (side A
and side B) of cable have wire arrangement
with same color.

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Straight Cabling standard

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 Crossover Cable

• Sometimes you will use crossover cable, it's usually used to

connect same type of devices. A crossover cable can be used
to:
• 1) Connect 2 computers directly.
2) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal port.
(normally used for expanding network)
3) Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both
switches/hubs.
• In you need to check how crossover cable looks like, both side
(side A and side B) of cable have wire arrangement with
following different color .

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 Crossover cabling
Pin ID Side Sasa Side B
1 White Orange White Green

2 Orange Green

3 White Green White Orange

4 Blue Blue

5 White blue White Blue

6 Green Orange

7 White Brown White Brown

8 Brown Brown

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 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
• Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable contains four pairs of thin,
copper wires covered in color-coded plastic insulation that are
twisted together.
• A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio
and electrical frequency interference which will create noise .
• Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with
electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make
the cables quite bulky.
• Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token
Ring topology.
04/25/2025 Chapter 2: Data Communication 45
 Shielded twisted pair cable

04/25/2025 Chapter 2: Data Communication 46

 Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable consists of four main parts:
Copper conductor
Plastic insulation
Braided copper shielding
Outer jacket
• At the center of the cable is a solid copper conductor.
Surrounding that conductor is a layer of flexible plastic
insulation.

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 Cont’d…
• A plastic layer provides insulation between the
center conductor and a braided metal shield
• The metal shield helps to block any outside
interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and
other computers.
• The connector used on coaxial cable is called a BNC,
short for British Naval Connector or Bayonet Neill
Concelman, connector.
• more expensive than UTP but less expensive than
fiber-optic cable.

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 Coaxial Cable

04/25/2025 Chapter 2: Data Communication 49

 Coaxial Cable(cont’d)

• Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is

highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it
can support greater cable lengths between network
devices than twisted pair cable.
• The two types of coaxial cables
1.Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet.
– 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
– The 2 refers to the approximate maximum
segment length being 200 meters.
– In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185
meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in school
networks, especially linear bus networks.
04/25/2025 Chapter 2: Data Communication 50
 Coaxial Cable(cont’d)

2.Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet.

• 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
• The 5 refers to the maximum segment length
being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an
extra protective plastic cover that helps keep
moisture away from the center conductor.
• This makes thick coaxial a great choice when
running longer lengths in a linear bus network.
• One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does
not bend easily and is difficult to install.

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 Fiber Optic Cable
• Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core
surrounded by several layers of protective materials .

Individual fiber
jacket Cladding

Optical fiber

Shelath
Reinforcing material
04/25/2025 Chapter 2: Data Communication 52
 Fiber Optic Cable(cont’d)
– It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the
problem of electrical interference.
– It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between
buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
– Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer
distances than coaxial and twisted pair.
– It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater
speeds.
– This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include
services such as video conferencing and interactive services.
– The cost of fiber optic cabling is a little bit higher; and, it is more
difficult to install and modify.

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 Facts about fiber optic cables:
• Outer insulating jacket is made of
• Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen th
prevent breakage.
• A plastic coating is used to cushio
center.
• Center (core) is made of glass or p

04/25/2025 Chapter 2: Data Communication 54

 Fiber Optic Connector

• The most common connector used with fiber

optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel
shaped, similar to a BNC connector. A newer
connector, the SC, is becoming more popular.
It has a squared face and is easier to connect
in a confined space.

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 Installing Cable - Some Guidelines

• Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty

of cable.
• Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it
is brand new, it may have problems that will be
difficult to isolate later.
• Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes
and other sources of electrical interference.
• If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover
the cable with cable protectors.
• Label both ends of each cable.
• Use cable ties to keep cables in the same location
together.
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 Wireless (Unguided Media) Transmission

Transmission and reception are achieved by means of

an antenna
 directional
transmitting antenna puts out focused beam
transmitter and receiver must be aligned
 omnidirectional
– signal spreads out in all directions
– can be received by many antennas

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 Wireless transmission media types

We can divide wireless transmission into three

broad groups:
• Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared waves

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 Radio Waves
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies
between 3 kHz and 1 GHz
• Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send
out signals in all directions.
• Radio waves can travel long distances. This makes
radio waves a good candidate for long-distance
broadcasting such as AM radio.
• One sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio,
television, maritime and radios are examples of
multicasting
04/25/2025 Chapter 2: Data Communication 59
 Microwaves
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between
1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional
• Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications: the parabolic dish and the horn
• Microwaves are very useful when unicast (one-to-
one) communication is needed between the sender
and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs

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 Infrared
• Can be used for short-range communication
Remote controls for TVs, VCRs, and stereos
Indoor wireless LANs
• Do not pass through solid walls
 Better security and no interference (with
a similar system in adjacent rooms)
• Cannot be used outdoors (due to the
sunshine)

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Components of the network
 Types of Wireless Networks (as stated by IEEE standards) are:
 Standard IEEE 802.11
 Wi-Fi, is a Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology that uses a
contention or non-deterministic system with a (CSMA/CA) media
access process
 Standard IEEE 802.15
 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) standard, commonly
known as "Bluetooth", uses a device pairing process to
communicate over distances from 1 to 100 meters.
 Standard IEEE 802.16
 Commonly known as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access), uses a point-to-multipoint topology to
provide wireless broadband access.
 Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
 Commonly known as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access), uses a point-to-multipoint topology to
provide wireless broadband access.
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04/25/2025 Chapter 2: Data Communication 63
  Criteria for choosing a network media:
 The distance the media can successfully carry a signal
 The environment in which the media is to be installed
 The amount of data and the speed at which it must be
transmitted
 The cost of the media and installation

 The signal encoding for each media type:

 Metallic wires
 electrical impulses
 Fiber optic
 pulses of light, either infrared or visible light ranges.
 Wireless transmission
 electromagnetic waves

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