Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals

Digital Computers and Information

Dr. Joydeep Chandra

Indian Institute of Technology Patna

Adapted from Morris Mano Digital Logic Design, book

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Digital System

Takes a set of discrete information inputs and discrete
internal information (system state) and generates a set of
discrete information outputs.

Discrete Discrete
Inputs Information
Processing Discrete
System Outputs

System State

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Types of Digital Systems

No state present

Combinational Logic System

Output = Function(Input)

State present

State updated at discrete times

Synchronous Sequential System

State updated at any time

Asynchronous Sequential System

State = Function (State, Input)

Output = Function (State) or Function (State, Input)

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 Digital System Example:

A Digital Counter (e. g., odometer):

Count Up 0 0 1 3 5 6 4
Reset
I/O
Inputs: Count Up, Reset Components
Outputs: Visual Display
State: "Value" of stored digits

Synchronous or Asynchronous?

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 A Digital Computer Example
The binary multiplication table is simple:
00=0 | 10=0 | 01=0 | 11=1
Extending multiplication to multiple digits:
Multiplicand 1011
Multiplier x 101
Partial Products 1011
0000 - MAR
1011 - -
Product 110111
Outputs: CRT,
Inputs: Keyboard, LCD, modem,
mouse, modem, speakers
microphone
Synchronous or Asynchronous?

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 Signal

An information variable represented by physical quantity.


For digital systems, the variable takes on discrete values.


Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent values in
digital systems.


Binary values are represented abstractly by:

Digits 0 and 1

Words (symbols) False (F) and True (T)

Words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)

And words On and Off.


Binary values are represented by values or ranges of
values of physical quantities
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 Signal Examples Over Time

Time

Analog Continuous in
value & time

Digital
Discrete in
value & continuous
Asynchronous in time

Discrete in
value & time
Synchronous

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 Signal Example – Physical Quantity: Voltage

OUTPUT INPUT
5.0
HIGH HIGH
4.0
3.0 Threshold
2.0 Region
1.0
LOW LOW
0.0
Volts

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Binary Values: Other Physical Quantities

What are other physical quantities represent 0 and
1?


CPU Voltage


Disk Magnetic Field Direction


CD Surface Pits/Light
Control

Dynamic RAM Electrical Charge

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 Number Systems – Representation

Positive radix, positional number systems


A number with radix r is represented by a string of digits:
An - 1An - 2 … A1A0 . A- 1 A- 2 … A- m  1 A- m


in which 0 Ai < r and . is the radix point.


The string of digits represents the power series:
i=n-1 j=-1
(Number)r =  Ai r  i
 Aj r j

i=0 j=-m
(Integer Portion) + (Fraction Portion)

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 Number Systems – Examples
General Decimal Binary
Radix (Base) r 10 2
Digits 0 => r - 1 0 => 9 0 =>1
0 r0 1 1
1 r1 10 2
2 r2 100 4
3 r3 1000 8
Powers of 4 r4 10,000 16
r5 100,000 32
Radix 5 r -1 0.1 0.5
-1 r -2 0.01 0.25
-2 r -3 0.001 0.125
-3 r -4 0.0001 0.0625
-4 r -5 0.00001 0.03125
-5

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 Special Powers of 2


210 (1024) is Kilo, denoted "K"


220 (1,048,576) is Mega, denoted "M"


230 (1,073, 741,824) is Giga, denoted "G"

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Positive Powers of 2

Useful for Base Conversion

Exponent Value Exponent Value

0 1 11 2048
1 2 12 4096

2 4 13 8192
3 8 14 16384

4 16 15 32768
5 32 16 65536
6 64 17 131072
7 128 18 262144
8 256 19 524288
9 512 20 1048576
10 1024 21 2097152

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 Converting Binary to Decimal
• To convert to decimal, use decimal arithmetic to
form S (digit × respective power of 2).
• Example: Convert 110102 to N10:

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 Converting Binary to Decimal


To convert to decimal, use decimal arithmetic to form 
(digit × respective power of 2).


Example:Convert 110102 to N10:

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Converting Decimal to Binary

Method 1


Subtract the largest power of 2 (see positive powers of
2 slide) that gives a positive remainder and record the
power.


Repeat, subtracting from the prior remainder and
recording the power, until the remainder is zero.


Place 1’s in the positions in the binary result
corresponding to the powers recorded; in all other
positions place 0’s.

 Example: Convert 62510 to N2

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 Commonly Occurring Bases

Name Radix Digits

2 0,1
Binary

8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Octal
10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Decimal

16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
Hexadecimal

The six letters (in addition to the 10 integers) in
hexadecimal represent:

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 Numbers in Different Bases

Good idea to memorize!

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

Base (10) Base(2) Base(8) Base(16)
00 00000 00 00
01 00001 01 01
02 00010 02 02
03 00011 03 03
04 00100 04 04
05 00101 05 05
06 00110 06 06
07 00111 07 07
08 01000 10 08
09 01001 11 09
10 01010 12 0A
11 01011 13 0B
12 01100 14 0C
13 01101 15 0D
14 01110 16 0E
15 01111 17 0F
16 10000 20 10

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 Conversion Between Bases


Method 2



To convert from one base to another

Convert the Integer Part

Convert the Fraction Part

Join the two results with a radix point

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 Conversion Details


To Convert the Integral Part:

Repeatedly divide the number by the new radix and save the
remainders. The digits for the new radix are the remainders in
reverse order of their computation. If the new radix is > 10, then
convert all remainders > 10 to digits A, B, …


To Convert the Fractional Part:

Repeatedly multiply the fraction by the new radix and save the
integer digits that result. The digits for the new radix are the integer
digits in order of their computation. If the new radix is > 10, then
convert all integers > 10 to digits A, B, …

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 Example: Convert 46.687510 To Base 2

Convert 46 to Base 2


Convert 0.6875 to Base 2:


Join the results together with the radix point:

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 Additional Issue - Fractional Part

Note that in this conversion, the fractional part became
0 as a result of the repeated multiplications.


In general, it may take many bits to get this to happen
or it may never happen.

 Example: Convert 0.6510 to N2


0.65 = 0.1010011001001 …

The fractional part begins repeating every 4 steps
yielding repeating 1001 forever!


Solution: Specify number of bits to right of radix point
and round or truncate to this number.

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 Checking the Conversion


To convert back, sum the digits times their
respective powers of r.
From the prior conversion of 46.687510
1011102 = 1·32 + 0·16 +1·8 +1·4 + 1·2 +0·1

= 32 + 8 + 4 + 2

= 46

0.10112 = 1/2 + 1/8 + 1/16

= 0.5000 + 0.1250 + 0.062

= 0.6875

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Why Do Repeated Division and Multiplication Work?

Divide the integer portion of the power series on slide 11 by
radix r. The remainder of this division is A0, represented by
the term A0/r.


Discard the remainder and repeat, obtaining remainders
A1…


Multiply the fractional portion of the power series on slide
11 by radix r. The integer part of the product is A-1.


Discard the integer part and repeat, obtaining integer parts
A-2, …


This demonstrates the algorithm for any radix r >1.
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Octal (Hexadecimal) to Binary and Back


Octal (Hexadecimal) to Binary:

Restate the octal (hexadecimal) as three (four) binary digits starting at the radix
point and going both ways.


Binary to Octal (Hexadecimal):

Group the binary digits into three (four) bit groups starting at the radix point and
going both ways, padding with zeros as needed in the fractional part.


Convert each group of three bits to an octal (hexadecimal) digit.

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Octal to Hexadecimal via Binary


Convert octal to binary.


Use groups of four bits and convert as above to
hexadecimal digits.


Example: Octal to Binary to Hexadecimal
6 3 5 . 1 7 7 8


Why do these conversions work?

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 Binary Numbers and Binary Coding


Flexibility of representation

Within constraints below, can assign any binary combination
(called a code word) to any data as long as data is uniquely
encoded.

Information Types

Numeric

Must represent range of data needed

Very desirable to represent data such that simple,
straightforward computation for common arithmetic operations
permitted

Tight relation to binary numbers

Non-numeric

Greater flexibility since arithmetic operations not applied.

Not tied to binary numbers
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Non-numeric Binary Codes


Given n binary digits (called bits), a binary code is a
mapping from a set of represented elements to a subset
of the 2n binary numbers. Color Binary
Number
Red 000

Example: A binary code for the seven Yellow 001
colors of the rainbow. Orange 010
Green 011

Code 111 is not used Blue 100
Indigo 101
Violet 110

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 Number of Bits Required


Given M elements to be represented by a binary code, the minimum
number of bits, n, needed, satisfies the following relationships:
2n > M > 2(n – 1)
n = log2 M where x , called the ceiling function, is the integer
greater than or equal to x.


Example: How many bits are required to represent decimal digits
with a binary code?

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 Number of Elements Represented


Given n digits in radix r, there are rn distinct elements
that can be represented.


But, you can represent m elements, m < rn


Examples:

You can represent 4 elements in radix r = 2 with n = 2 digits: (00, 01, 10,
11).

You can represent 4 elements in radix r = 2 with n = 4 digits: (0001, 0010,
0100, 1000).

This second code is called a "one hot" code.

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 Binary Codes for Decimal Digits
 There are over 8,000 ways that you can chose 10 elements
from the 16 binary numbers of 4 bits. A few are useful:

Decimal 8,4,2,1 Excess3 8,4,-2,-1 Gray

0 0000 0011 0000 0000
Properties: 1 0001 0100 0111 0100
2 0010 0101 0110 0101
Sequential 3 0011 0110 0101 0111
Self- 4 0100 0111 0100 0110
Complementary 5 0101 1000 1011 0010
6 0110 1001 1010 0011
7 0111 1010 1001 0001
8 1000 1011 1000 1001
9 1001 1100 1111 1000

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Chapter 1Patna 33
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 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)


The BCD code is the 8,4,2,1 code.


This code is the simplest, most intuitive binary code for
decimal digits and uses the same powers of 2 as a
binary number, but only encodes the first ten values
from 0 to 9.


Example: 1001 (9) = 1000 (8) + 0001 (1)


How many “invalid” code words are there?


What are the “invalid” code words?

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 Excess 3 Code and 8, 4, –2, –1 Code

Decimal Excess 3 8, 4, –2, –1

0 0011 0000
1 0100 0111
2 0101 0110
3 0110 0101
4 0111 0100
5 1000 1011
6 1001 1010
7 1010 1001
8 1011 1000
9 1100 1111


What interesting property is common to these two codes?

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 A four-bit binary to Gray code conversion table is as shown below.
Four Bit Binary Number Four Bit Gray Code
B1 B2 B3 B4 G1 G2 G3 G4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

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 The generation of 4-bit Gray code can be calculated by
using formula.
G1 = B1
G2 = B1ÅB2
G3 = B2ÅB3
G4 = B3ÅB4

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 The most significant bit (MSB) of the Gray code is always
equal to the MSB of the given binary code other bits of the output
Gray code can be obtained by Xoring binary code bit at that index
and previous index.
The binary to Gray code conversions can be done by using
xoring logic gate. A four-bit binary code converter is shown
above. The input is binary code and the output is equivalent Gray
code.

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 Gray to binary code conversion

In Gray to binary conversion, the input is Gray code and

output is its equivalent binary code.
The generation of four-bit binary equivalent code can be
calculated by using formula.
B1 = G1
B2 = G2 Å B1
B3 = G3 Å B2
B4 = G4 Å B3

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  The MSB of binary code is similar to the MSB of Gray code.
 To get next bit, use the xoring operation among the MSB of
binary to the next bit of the Gray code.
 Similarly, to get the third bit, it uses the xoring operation
among the second bit to the third MSB of the Gray code and
so on.

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 A four-bit Gray to binary code conversion table is as shown below.
Four Bit Gray Code Four Bit Binary Number
G1 G2 G3 G4 B1 B2 B3 B4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

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 Warning: Conversion or Coding?


Do NOT mix up conversion of a decimal number to a binary
number with coding a decimal number with a BINARY
CODE.

 1310 = 11012 (This is conversion)


13  0001|0011 (This is coding)

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 Binary Arithmetic

Bit Addition with Carry

Multiple Bit Addition
Single Bit Subtraction with Borrow
Multiple Bit Subtraction
Multiplication
BCD Addition

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 Single Bit Binary Addition with Carry

Given two binary digits (X,Y), a carry in (Z) we get the

following sum (S) and carry (C):
Carry in (Z) of 0:
Z 0 0 0 0
X 0 0 1 1
+Y +0 +1 +0 +1
CS 00 01 01 10
Carry in (Z) of 1: Z 1 1 1 1
X 0 0 1 1
+Y +0 +1 +0 +1
CS 01 10 10 11

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 Multiple Bit Binary Addition


Extending this to two multiple bit examples:

Carries 0 0
Augend 01100 10110
Addend + 10001 +10111
Sum


Note: The 0 is the default Carry-In to the least significant bit.

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 Single Bit Binary Subtraction with Borrow


Given two binary digits (X,Y), a borrow in (Z) we get
the following difference (S) and borrow (B):
Z 0 0 0 0
Borrow in (Z) of 0:
X 0 0 1 1
-Y -0 -1 -0 -1
BS 00 11 01 00

Z 1 1 1 1
Borrow in (Z) of 1:
X 0 0 1 1
-Y -0 -1 -0 -1
BS 11 10 00 11

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 Multiple Bit Binary Subtraction


Extending this to two multiple bit examples:

Borrows 0 0
Minuend 10110 10110
Subtrahend - 10010 - 10011
Difference


Notes: The 0 is a Borrow-In to the least significant
bit. If the Subtrahend > the Minuend, interchange
and append a – to the result.

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 Binary Multiplication
The binary multiplication table is simple:
00=0 | 10=0 | 01=0 | 11=1
Extending multiplication to multiple digits:
Multiplicand 1011
Multiplier x 101
Partial Products 1011
0000 -
1011 - -
Product 110111

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 BCD Arithmetic

Given a BCD code, we use binary arithmetic to add the digits:
8 1000 Eight
+5 +0101 Plus 5
13 1101 is 13 (> 9)

Note that the result is MORE THAN 9, so must be represented
by two digits!
8 1000 Eight
+5 +0101 Plus 5
13 1101 is 13 (> 9)
+0110 so add 6
carry = 1 0011 leaving 3 + cy
0001 | 0011 Final answer (two digits)

To correct the digit, subtract 10 by adding 6 modulo 16.

If the digit sum is > 9, add one to the next significant digit
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 BCD Addition Example


Add 2905BCD to 1897BCD showing carries and digit
corrections.

0
0001 1000 1001 0111
+ 0010 1001 0000 0101

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 1 1 1 0
0001 1000 1001 0111
+ 0010 1001 0000 0101

0100 10010 1010 1100

+ 0000+ 0110+ 0110+ 0110

0100 1000 0000 0010

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 Number systems
• How do we write negative binary numbers?
• Historically: 3 approaches
• Sign-and-magnitude
• Ones-complement
• Twos-complement

• For all 3, the most-significant bit (MSB) is the sign digit

• 0 ≡ positive
• 1 ≡ negative

• twos-complement is the important one

• Simplifies arithmetic
• Used almost universally

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 Sign-and-magnitude
• The most-significant bit (MSB) is the sign digit
• 0 ≡ positive
• 1 ≡ negative

• The remaining bits are the number’s magnitude

• Problem 1: Two representations for zero
• 0 = 0000 and also –0 = 1000

• Problem 2: Arithmetic is cumbersome

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 Ones-complement
• Negative number: Bitwise complement positive
number
• 0011 ≡ 310
• 1100 ≡ –310

• Solves the arithmetic problem

• Remaining problem: Two representations for

zero
• 0 = 0000 and also –0 = 1111
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 Twos-complement
• Negative number: Bitwise complement plus
one
• 0011 ≡ 310
–1 0
• 1101 ≡ –310 –2 1111 0000 +1

–3 1110 0001 +2
• Number wheel 1101 0010
–4 +3
 Only one zero! 1100 0011

– 5 1011 0100 + 4
 MSB is the sign 1010 0101
digit –6 1001 0110 +5
 0 ≡ positive 1000 0111
–7 +6
 1 ≡ negative
–8 +7

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 Twos-complement (con’t)
• Complementing a complement of the original
number
• Arithmetic is easy
• Subtraction = negation and addition
• Easy to implement in hardware

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 Miscellaneous
• Twos-complement of non-integers
• 1.687510 = 01.10112
• –1.687510 = 10.01012

• Sign extension
• Write +6 and –6 as twos complement
• 0110 and 1010
• Sign extend to 8-bit bytes
• 00000110 and 11111010

• Can’t infer a representation from a number

• 11001 is 25 (unsigned)
• 11001 is –9 (sign magnitude)
• 11001 is –6 (ones complement)
• 11001 is –7 (twos complement)
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 Twos-complement overflow
• Summing two positive numbers gives a negative result

• Summing two negative numbers gives a positive result

–1 0 –1 0
–2 1111 0000 + 1 –2 1111 0000 + 1
–3 1110 0001 + 2 –3 1110 0001 + 2
1101 0010 1101 0010
– 4 1100 0011 + 3 – 4 1100 0011 + 3
– 5 1011 0100 + 4 – 5 1011 0100 + 4
1010 0101 1010 0101
–6 1001 0110 + 5 –6 1001 0110 + 5
–7 1000 0111 + 6 –7 1000 0111 + 6
–8 +7 –8 +7

6 + 4 ⇒ –6 –7 – 3 ⇒ +6
• Make sure to have enough bits to handle overflow

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 bb

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