BASICS OF TRANSPORTATION

SYSTEMS AND WATER

RESOURCES
 TRANSPORTATION

• Transportation, the movement of goods and persons from place to place and
the various means by which such movement is accomplished.

Modes of transportation
1. Roadways Transportation.

2. Railways Transportation.

3. Water Transportation.

4. Air Transportation.
 ROADWAY TRANSPORTATION
• A road is an identifiable route way or path between two or more places. This
mode of transport helps to transfer the goods from one place to another place
by road through various methods like auto, buses, trucks, cargos, and other
suitable factors.
 ROADWAY TRANSPORTATION
Advantage

• It is very flexible in nature.

• It helps to facilitate the movement of goods even in remote areas.

• It provides alternatives in the form of car, rickshaw, auto, cars, bus, trucks, and
so on.

• It is good for transporting perishable products.

• It requires low capital investments.

• It is very suitable for a short distance journey.

 ROADWAY TRANSPORTATION
Disadvantage
• It is not suited for long distance as it is not economical.
• Slow as compared to railways.
• Goods can be destroyed/damage due to specks of dust and pollutions.
• It is time-consuming.
• Accidents and Breakdowns.
 RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION
• It is a means of transport in which the goods are transferred from one place to
another place and as well as transfers the passenger from one place to another
destination. It is preferred due to high speed. Invariance to road transport,
where vehicles run on a flat road or surface, rail vehicles are directionally
managed by the rail tracks on which they run.
 RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION
Advantage
• It is economical for long distances because it can easily cover all area of states
and cities.
• This means of transport is very faster than roadways.
• Most suitable for carrying a bulky amount of goods and products.
• It provides proper protection from exposure to sun and dust pollutions.
• It is the most dependable means of transport.
• It is the very safest means of transport.
• Rail transport helps to provide employment opportunities to both skilled and
unskilled individuals.
 RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION
Disadvantage
• Huge capital required for construction maintenance.
• It is not suitable for hilly areas.
• It is not flexible in nature.
• The cost and time of terminal operations are the major disadvantages of rail transport.
• Operation controls are necessary in the form of signal.
• It consists much time for booking of goods through the comparison of road transport.
 WATER TRANSPORTATION
• It involves the movement of goods through oceans and seas. It is the cheapest way of transporting bulky goods
over a long distance.

• There are two major types of water transport namely: Inland water transport and ocean water transport.

Inland water transport

• This is the system of transport through all navigable rivers, lakes, and man-made canals.

Ocean Waterways

• Ocean waterways carry a lot of the world’s trade, the majority of the bulky goods, materials, and passengers
pass through ocean waterways from one country to another at the cheapest cost.
 WATER TRANSPORTATION
Advantage
• It is the very cheapest or easiest means of transportation.
• Goods in bulk are transported.
• It promotes foreign or international trade.
• It require less power for its working.
• In comparison to other transport, the risks capacity is very low.
 WATER TRANSPORTATION
Disadvantage
• One of the drawbacks is there is a delay in the movement of goods from one place to
another.
• Performance is affected by seasonal variations.
• It can be used in a limited area of operations because it can only run on seas or oceans.
• Water transport is very unsuitable for small businesses because it carries a small number
of goods.
• Initial cost for harbour and port is high.
 AIR TRANSPORTATION
• Air transport is the newest means of transport; it was introduced in 1903 but developed
into full means of transporting people and goods in the 1930s. The greatest air
transportation started after the Second World War (WWII). This mode of transportation
can be used for both domestic and international flights.
 AIR TRANSPORTATION
Advantage
• Fastest means of transportation.
• Useful moving the goods in the amount of bulk.
• Each and every area of accessible.
• Vital for national security and defense.
• Very useful in earthquakes and other floods.
• It provides an efficient, regular, and quick service.
• It is very suitable for emergency services.
 AIR TRANSPORTATION
Disadvantage
• The large capital investment needed.
• Not suitable for working goods.
• May be affected by rains.
• Risks of accidents are highest.
• This mode of transport requires a specialized skill and a high degree of training for its
working operations.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
ACCORDING TO TRAFFIC

Types of Roads Vehicles Per Day

Very heavy traffic roads Above 600

Heavy traffic roads 251 to 600

Medium traffic roads 70 to 250

Light traffic roads Below 70

 CLASSIFICATION OF
ROADS ACCORDING TO TONNAGE

Types of Road Vehicles Per Day

Very heavy traffic roads Above 1524

Heavy traffic roads 1017 to 1524

Medium traffic roads 508 to 1017

Light traffic roads Below 508

 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS BY
NAGPUR ROAD PLAN
• National Highways (NH) :

The main highways running through the length and breadth of India, joining major parts, capital of
states, large industrial and tourist centers, foreign highways including roads required for strategic
movements for the defence of India etc. are known as National Highways (NHs).

Amritsar- Ambala- Delhi Road- NH1

Delhi- Agra- Kanpur- Culcutta Road – NH2

Agra- Mumbai Road- NH3

• State Highways (SH) :

The highways linking up with the national highways of adjacent states, district headquarters and
important cities with the states are known as State Highways (SHs).
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS BY
NAGPUR ROAD PLAN
• Major District Roads (MDR) :

The important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets and connecting these
places with each other or with the main highways are known as Major District Roads (MDRs).

• Other District Roads (ODR) :

The roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market centers,
headquarters, block development headquarters, railway stations etc interior of the district are known
as Other District Roads (ODRs). This have lower design specification than MDR.

• Village Roads (VR) :

The roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other or with the nearest road of higher
category are known as village roads. They are unmetalled road so during monsoon these are unusable.
 PAVEMENT
• Pavement is one type of hard surface made from durable surface material laid down on an area that is
intended to carry vehicular or foot traffic.

• Its main function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade through different layers. The road
Pavement should provide sufficient skid resistance, proper riding quality, favorable
light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution.
• Flexible pavement: Flexible pavements are those pavements which reflect the
deformation of subgrade and the subsequent layers to the surface. Flexible, usually
asphalt, is laid with no reinforcement or with a specialized fabric reinforcement that
permits limited flow or repositioning of the roadbed under ground changes.
• Rigid pavement: The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with rigidity
or flexural strength or slab action so the load is distributed over a wide area of subgrade
soil. Rigid pavement is laid in slabs with steel reinforcement. The rigid pavements are
made of cement concrete either plan, reinforced or prestressed concrete.
 S.N. Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
It transfers the wheel load to
It transfers the wheel load to
1. subgrade by grain to grain
subgrade by slab action.
mechanism.
Aggregate and bitumen are used as Concrete and steel are used as key
2.
the key materials. materials.
3. The initial construction cost is low. The initial construction cost is high.
4. It doesn’t require joints. It requires joints.
5. Durability is low. Durability is high.
It distributes wheel load uniformly.
It doesn’t distribute load uniformly.
6. So, there is no requirement for a
So, a good subgrade is required.
good subgrade.
There is no effect of temperature Temperature variation affects the
7.
variation on stress variation. stress variation.
The maximum lifespan of rigid
The lifespan of flexible pavement is
8. pavement is approximately 20 to 30
approximately 10 to 15 years.
years or more.
9. Repair work is simple. Repair work is complex.
10. The maintenance cost is high. The maintenance cost is low.

11. It doesn’t require curing. It requires curing.

CROSS-SECTION OF ROAD IN
EMBANKMENT
CROSS-SECTION OF ROAD IN CUTTING
 CROSS-SECTION OF ROAD
RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)
• The land area along the alignment of road, to be used for road construction in future, is called
right of way. The road land width or the right-of-way width is the width of land secured and
preserved in public interest for road development purposes.
CARRIAGE WAY
• Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane
and number of lanes.
Width of carriageway (m)
Single lane: 3.75 m
Two lanes, without raised kerbs: 7.0 m
Two lanes, with raised kerbs: 7.5 m
Multi lane pavement: 3.5m per lane
 CROSS-SECTION OF ROAD
Roadway width :

Width of formation or roadway is the sum of width of pavements or carriage way including separators if
any and the shoulders. Roadway or formation width is the top width of the highway embankment or
the bottom width of highway cutting excluding the side drains.

Median :

It is also called traffic separator, and divides a highway into two sets of traffic lanes. central reserve or
a median is the longitudinal space separating dual carriage-ways.
KERBS
Kerbs indicates the boundary between the pavement and shoulder. It is desirable to provide kerbs on
urban roads. A kerb is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a pavement or shoulder, forming
part of gutter, strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining the edge to vehicle drivers
CROSS-SECTION OF RAIL
 CROSS-SECTION OF RAIL
• The component parts of a railway track (permanent way) are
(i) Rail
(ii) Sleeper
(iii) Ballast
(iv) Sub-ballast
(vi) Embankment
The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and subgrade is called the railway track or
permanent way.

• Gauge: The definite distance between two parallel rail sections is known as gauge.

1.Broad gauge: 1676 mm

2.Metre gauge: 1000 mm

3.Narrow gauge: 762 mm

4.Light gauge: 610 mm

 CROSS-SECTION OF RAIL
• Sleepers: the members which are laid transverse to the rails to support the rail and to transfer the loads from
rails to the ballast are called sleepers.

Types of sleepers :(i)Wooden

(ii) Metal (a) cast - iron (b) steel (ii) Concrete (a) Reinforced concrete (b) Prestressed concrete

Functions of sleepers :(i) These hold the rails to proper gauge in all situations(ii) These distribute the load
transmitted through rails over large area ballast underneath or to the bridge girders.(ii) These provide an elastic
medium between the rails and the ballast an absorb the vibrations caused due to moving trains.(iv) These provide
general stability of the permanent track

• Ballast: The heavy material such as gravel, broken stone etc. that is placed below and around the sleepers to
transmit wheel load from sleepers to formation and also to provide proper drainage is called ballast.
 TRAFFIC SIGNS AND SYMBOL
• Traffic Signs or Road Signs are signs erected at the side of roads to provide information
to road users. Pictorial signs are used as symbols in place of words. As control devices
for traffic, signs need full attention, respect and adequate driver's response. There are
three basic types of traffic signs:-
Signs that give orders.
Regulatory Signs These are represented
by red circles.

Signs that give

warnings. These are
Warning Signs
represented by red
triangles
Signs that give
information. These are
Informative Signs
represented by blue
rectangles.
REGULATORY SIGNS
WARNING SIGNS
INFORMATORY SIGNS
 Sources of
water

Sub-surface
Surface Water water

Ponds
Lakes
Streams Confined Aquifer and Unconfined
Aquifer
Rivers
Wells: Open well, Tube well
Storage reservoir
Stored rain water
 SUB-SURFACE WATER SOURCE
• Confined Aquifer: It is an aquifer which is sandwich between two impervious strata.

• Unconfined Aquifer: It is one in which a free water surface that is water table exists.

• Well: It isa hole or shaft, usually vertical, excavated in earth for bringing ground
water to the surface:

Open well: Open wells are large in diameter but low yield and are not deep.
Diameter: 1 to 10 m

Tube well: A tube well is long pipe sunk into ground intercepting one or more water
bearing strata. Diameter: 80 mm to 600 mm
 Water Requirement for
Different Uses

Water Supply Hydropower

Irrigation
Municipal Water Water required Navigation
Water required
Supply for power Recreation
for different
Industrial Water crops generation
Supply
 WATER REQUIREMENT FOR MUNICIPAL
SUPPLIES
• Water is required by the public for various uses, such as domestic use, industrial use,
commercial use, public utility purposes, fire demand, water losses etc
• The quantities of water required for these different uses are explained below.
Domestic use = 135 litres/day/person
Industrial use= 50 litres/day/person
Commercial use = 20 litres/day/person
Public utility= 10 litres/day/person
Water losses = 55 litres/day/person
Total= 270 litres/day/person
 WATER CONSERVATION
1. Domestic conservation
2. Industrial Conservation
3. Agriculture Conservation
4. Rain water Harvesting
 DOMESTIC CONSERVATION
• Repair all leaks quickly. This way wasted water can be saved.
• Turn off water when not absolutely required.
• Use conserving appliances which use low volume water for domestic purposes
• lack cost of water is often wasted and not properly used.
• Local bodies should install water meters and encourage water pricing policies in
which water is much more expensive beyond some minimum reading of water
meter.
 INDUSTRIAL CONSERVATION
• Use such cooling system which uses less water. Use dry cooling system or
cooling tower that use less water
• Reuse the cooling water for irrigation or other purposes.
• Install in plant treatment measures for treating the waste water or effluent. This
treated water should be recycled or used for other purposes.
• Develop new equipments and processes which require less water
• The modern water carriage system of sewage disposal requires a large quantity
of water. Some new techniques should be developed
 AGRICULTURE CONSERVATION
• Use improves irrigation methods such as sprinkler or drip irrigation
• The water required for agriculture can be considerably reduced by reducing
conveyance losses and discouraging waste full irrigation practices
• Evaporation losses from small reservoirs can be reduced by providing roofs over
them.
• Construction of ground water storage reservoirs in conjunction with modern
surface storage reservoirs will considerably reduce evaporation losses, especially
in arid regions.
• Use lined canals which reduce seepage and evaporation.
• Price agricultural water to encourage conservation.
• Conjunctive use of ground water and surface water can be planned for additional
irrigation benefits from the increased recharge of ground water.
RAIN WATER HARVESTING
 RAIN WATER HARVESTING
Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses, schools purposes and local
institutions, can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking
water. Water collected from the ground, sometimes from areas which are
especially prepared for this purpose, is called storm water harvesting.
Some of the benefits of rainwater harvesting are as follows:
• Increase water availability
• Checks the declining water table and augment ground water table
• It is environmentally friendly Improves the quality of ground water
• Prevents soil erosion and flooding especially in urban areas
• Surface water runoff conservation during monsoon.
• It inculcates a culture of water conservation
 STORAGE STRUCTURE

GRAVITY
DAM
•A gravity dam is a dam
constructed from concrete
or stone masonry and
designed to hold back water
by using only the weight of
the material and its
resistance against the
foundation to oppose the
horizontal pressure of water
pushing against it.
 EARTH
DAM
•Earthfill dam, also called
earth dam or embankment
dam, dam built up by
compacting successive layers
of earth, using the most
impervious materials to form
a core and placing more
permeable substances on the
upstream and downstream
sides..
 ROCKFILL
DAM

•Rock fill dams are constructed

using rocks and boulders.
Upstream side of dam is built
with dry rubble masonry and
loose rock fill is provided on the
downstream side. A reinforced
concrete slab layer is also
provided on the upstream side
to make it water tight. It is more
stable than earthen dams and
its flexible nature helps it better
against earthquake forces.
 ARCH
DAM
•An arch dam is curved in
plan with its convex
upstream. Various forces
coming onto the dam are
resisted by its arch action. It
is constructed using masonry
or concrete but requires less
material compared to gravity
dam. The loads coming onto
the dam are transferred to
the abutments of dam.
BUTTRESS
DAM
•A buttress dam contains
face slab, buttresses and
base slab. Face slab is
provided on the upstream
side with some inclination
and this slab is supported
by series of buttresses
which are nothing but
supports.
DRINKING WATER PARAMETERS
 INTRODUCTION OF WATER
TREATMENT PLANT
• Water Treatment Plants are installations where waste or dirty water is
converted into better quality water through various physical and chemical
processes.

• The various treatment processes may reduce: (a) Suspended solids

(physical particles that can clog rivers or channels as they settle under
gravity) (b) Biodegradable organics (e.g. BOD) which can serve as “food” for
microorganisms in the receiving body. (c) Pathogenic Bacteria and other
disease causing organisms. (d) Nutrients, including nitrates and phosphates.
 IMPORTANCE OF RAW WATER
TREATMENT
i. Removal of all pathogenic germs contained in untreated water.
ii. To remove the unpleasant and objectionable tastes and odors from the water.
iii. to remove the dissolved gases, murkiness and color of water.
iv. To make water fit for domestic purposes.
v. To eliminate the tuberculation and corrosive properties of water which affects the
conduits and pipes.
vi. Removal of settable suspended matter and non-settable colloidal impurities.
vii. Removing of floating matter.

According to research, large number of people die from water born dieses in the most
developing country. Therefore it is very important to get proper treatment of water for
healthy living.