CHAPTER FOUR

MOTIVATION CONCEPT AND

ITS APPLICATION
• 4.1 What Is Motivation?
• Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining
a goal.
• Motivation represents the forces acting on or within a person
that cause the person to behave
in a specific, goal-directed manner.
• When we see in an organization context,
motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort
toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s
ability to satisfy some individual need.
• 4.1.1Motivation process

Unsatisfied Need Tension

Drives

Reduction Satisfied need Search

of Tension Behavior
• 4.2. Features of Motivations
• There are several characteristics of motivation.
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon.
 Motivation is a continuous process.
Motivation is the result of the person’s thoughts
and expectations.
It can be of two types:
intrinsic motivation
extrinsic motivation, tension
motivational needs are ordered
• 4.4 Theories of Motivation
• These are theories explaining how employees
will be motivated.
• Two categorizations theories of motivation:
early theories
 contemporary
• 4.4.1 Early Theories of Motivation
• These motivational theories relatively old
• Knowing these theories is important at least for
two reasons:
They represent a foundation from which contemporary
theories have grown.
 Practicing managers still regularly use these theories and
their terminology in explaining employee motivation.
• These are
 Carrot and Stick Approach
the hierarchy of needs theory,
Theories X and Y, and
the motivation-hygiene theory
• 1. Carrot and Stick Approach
• This approach relates the use of rewards and penalties in
order to induce desired human behavior.
• It comes from the old story that to make a donkey move one
must put a carrot in front of it and if it does not move beat it
with stick from behind.
• Carrot - money in the form of pay or bonuses.
• Stick – fear such as fear of loss of job, loss of income,
reduction of bonuses demotion or some other penalty.
• 2. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Abraham Maslow developed this theory in the
1940s, based on four major assumptions.
First, only unmet needs motivate.
 Second, people’s needs are arranged in order of
importance (hierarchy) going from basic to
complex.
Third, people will not be motivated to satisfy a
higher-level need unless the lower-level need(s)
has been at least minimally satisfied.
Finally, Maslow assumed that people have five
classifications of needs.
Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow defined human needs as:

Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and

relief from pain.

Safety and security: the need for freedom from

threat; the security from threatening events or
surroundings.

Belongingness, social, and love: the need for

friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.

Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect

from others.

Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by

maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and potential
• 3. Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
• Theory X – pessimistic and negative
• Theory Y- adopts a developmental approach/
modern/positive set of assumptions, optimistic
• McGregor grouped the physiological and safety
needs as „lower-order needs and the social,
esteem, and self-actualization needs as higher-
order needs.
 Theory X Theory Y
1) Employees dislike work and 1) Employees do not inherently
will avoid work if they can dislike work; working is as natural
2) As employees dislike work, as resting and playing.
they must be coerced to achieve 2) Employees are capable of self-
objectives. direction and self-control if they
3) Employees have little are committed to objectives.
ambition; they prefer to be 3) The typical employee can learn
directed and to avoid to accept and seek responsibility.
responsibility. 4) Most employees are able to
4) Employees primarily want use creativity to solve problems.
security.
• 4. The Two-Factor Theory (motivation-hygiene theory)
• Developed by Hertzberg
• two-factor theory also called motivation-hygiene theory
• proposed that motivators rather than hygiene factors motivate employees.
• Herzberg concluded that job dissatisfaction and job satisfaction arise from
two separate sets of factors.
• Dissatisfiers/ maintenance/ Hygiene Factors: are features of
the work environment rather than the work itself.
• The word hygiene indicates that they stop dissatisfaction from
occurring, and work could be very dissatisfying if they are
absent.
• Motivators/ Satisfiers:
• Are factors leading to job satisfaction
• all related to the job context and the rewards of work
performance seem to be related to job-satisfaction.
 Herzberg's Motivators and Hygiene's

Motivators leading to Hygiene's leading to no

Job satisfaction dissatisfaction

• Achievement • Organizational Policies

• Recognition • Supervision
• Work it self • Relations with peers
• Responsibility • Working Condition
• Advancement • Pay
• Personal growth • Job Security
• 5. David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
• McClelland’s theory of needs was developed by
David McClelland and his associates.
• It looks at three needs:
• Need for achievement (nAch) is the drive to excel,
to achieve in relationship to a set of standards.
High need for achievement people:
Prefer individual responsibilities.
Prefer challenging goals.
Prefer performance feedback.
• Need for power (nPow) • Need for affiliation
is the need to make (nAff) is the desire for
others behave in a way friendly and close
they would not have interpersonal
otherwise. relationships.
• High need for power • High need for affiliation
people: people:
Seek influence over  Are drawn to interpersonal
others. relationships.
Like attention.  Seek opportunities for
Like recognition. communication.
• 4.4.2 Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• We call them contemporary theories not because they
necessarily were developed recently, but because they
represent the current state of the art in explaining
employee motivation.
• It includes:
ERG theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Goal setting theory
• 1) ERG Theory
• developed by Clayton Alderfer
• ERG theory is a well-known simplification of the
hierarchy of needs theory.
• Clayton Alderfer reorganized Maslow’s needs hierarchy
into three levels of needs:
Existence (physiological and safety needs): concerned with
sustaining human existence and survival
Relatedness (social): concerned with relationships to the
social environment
Growth (esteem and self-actualization): concerned with the
development of potential
• 2) Equity Theory
• Equity theory proposes that employees are motivated when
their perceived inputs equal outputs.

• Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they

have been treated in comparison with the treatment received
by others.
• A relevant other could be a coworker or group of employees
from the same or different organizations, or even from a
hypothetical situation.
• Motivation is based on the perception of one’s own
outcome/input ratio compared to that of a similar individual or
group, called a referent.
• Equity= when employees perceive that the ratios of
their inputs (efforts) to their
outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of
other similar employees. The referent that an employee
selects adds to the complexity of equity theory.
• There are four referent comparisons we can use:
Self-inside: An employee’s experiences in a different position
inside his/her current organization.
Self-outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or position
outside his/her current organization.
Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside
the employee’s organization
Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside
the employee’s organization
• 3) Expectancy Theory
• It is based on Victor Vroom’s formula: Motivation =
Expectancy x Valence.
• It proposes that employees are motivated when they believe
they can accomplish the task and the rewards for doing so are
worth the effort.
• Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act
in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation
that they act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
• The theory, therefore, focuses on three relationships
 Efforts - Performance relationship: It is related to the probability perceived
by individual that exerting a given amount of efforts will lead to performance
(Expectancy).
 Performance- Reward Relationship: The degree to which the individual
believes that performing at a particular level will lead to attainment of
desired outcome (Instrumentality).
 Reward-personal goal relationship: The degree to which an organizational
reword will satisfy individual needs and its attractiveness for the
individual(Valence)
• 5. Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal setting theory is proposed by Edwin Locke.
• The basic premise of goal theory is that people’s goals or
intentions play an important part in determining behavior.
• A goal is “what an individual is trying to accomplish
• The quality of performance is generally shaped by how
difficult and how specifically defined the goal is.
• General goal such as “do your best,” do not lend to accurate
performance appraisal and proportionate rewards.
• Specific goals are clear and tend to give a clear direction to the
worker, resulting in improved performance.
• Similarly, difficult goals, once accepted, lead to higher
performance.
• 4.6 Managerial Approaches for Improving
Motivation
• To motivate employees the management uses
several important ways such as
rewards,
 job design,
self-leadership,
empowerment,
performance feedback
Alternative Work Arrangements:
• 1. Reward Systems: Organizations can offer two types of
rewards:
Intrinsic rewards
Extrinsic rewards
• 2. Job Design: Job design is the process of assigning tasks to
a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other
jobs.
• Contemporary job design strategies reverse job specialization
through job rotation, job enlargement, and job enrichment.
Job Rotation: It is the practice of moving employees
from one job to another typically for short periods.
Job Enlargement: It is the practice of increasing the
number of tasks employees performs within their job.
Job Enrichment: It occurs when employees are given
more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and
planning their own work.
• 3. Self-Leadership: It is the process of influencing oneself to
establish the self-direction, and self-motivation needed to perform the
task.
• It takes the view that individuals mostly regulate their own actions
through the behavioral and cognitive (thought) activities.
• Empowerment: means creating conditions in which employees
perceive themselves as competent and in control of performing
meaningful tasks.
• Performance Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the work
activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct
and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her
performance.
• Alternative Work Arrangements: Another approach to motivation is
to alter work arrangements with
flextime,
job sharing, or
telecommuting.
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