UNIT-3

Fundamentals of Electronics
Engineering

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Brief introduction to semiconductor

 What are Semiconductors?

 Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between
conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such as ceramics).
Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium arsenide or pure elements, such
as germanium or silicon. Physics explains the theories, properties and mathematical
approach governing semiconductors.

 Examples of Semiconductors:
 Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly used
semiconductors. Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and gallium
arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.

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Some Important Properties of Semiconductors are:

 Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the temperature, it

works as a conductor.
 Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by
doping to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches, and
amplifiers.
 Lesser power losses.
 Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
 Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
 The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature
and vice-versa.

 Types of Semiconductors
 Semiconductors can be classified as:
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
 Extrinsic Semiconductor

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Types of Semiconductors

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Intrinsic Semiconductor

 An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It is

made up of only a single type of element.

Conduction Mechanism in Case of Intrinsic Semiconductors (a) In absence of electric

field (b) In presence of electric Field

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Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor

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Extrinsic Semiconductor

 The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a

small number of suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES.
 The process of adding impurity atoms to the pure semiconductor is called
DOPING.
 Usually, only 1 atom in 107 is replaced by a dopant atom in the doped
semiconductor.

 An extrinsic semiconductor can be further classified into:

 N-type Semiconductor
 P-type Semiconductor

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Classification of Extrinsic Semiconductor

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N-Type Semiconductor

 Mainly due to electrons

 Entirely neutral
 Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes
 When a pure semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) is doped by
pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi) then, four electrons out of five valence
electrons bonds with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
 The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the impurity atom donates
a free electron for conduction in the lattice and is called “Donar“.
 Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity,
the negative charge carriers increase. Hence, it is called n-type
semiconductor.

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P-Type Semiconductor

 Mainly due to holes

 Entirely neutral
 Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons
 When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In,
Ga ) then, the three valence electrons of the impurity bonds with three of
the four valence electrons of the semiconductor.
 This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity
atoms which are ready to accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.
 With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge
carriers) are increased. Hence, it is called p-type semiconductor.

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Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor
Density of electrons is equal to Density of electrons is not equal
the density of holes to the density of holes
Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high
Dependence on temperature only Dependence on temperature as
well as on the amount of impurity
No impurities Trivalent impurity, pentavalent
impurity

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Applications of Semiconductors

 Let us now understand the uses of semiconductors in daily life. Semiconductors are
used in almost all electronic devices. Without them, our life would be much
different.
 Their reliability, compactness, low cost and controlled conduction of electricity
make them ideal to be used for various purposes in a wide range of components
and devices. transistors, diodes, photosensors, microcontrollers, integrated chips
and much more are made up of semiconductors.
 Temperature sensors are made with semiconductor devices.
 They are used in 3D printing machines
 Used in microchips and self-driving cars
 Used in calculators, solar plates, computers and other electronic devices.
 Transistor and MOSFET used as a switch in Electrical Circuits are manufactured
using the semiconductors.

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Importance of Semiconductors

 Here we have discussed some advantages of

semiconductors which makes them highly useful
everywhere.
 They are highly portable due to the smaller size
 They require less input power
 Semiconductor devices are shockproof
 They have a longer lifespan
 They are noise-free while operating

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Compare Conductor, Semiconductor and Insulator.

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Difference Between N-Type and P-type Semiconductors

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P-N Junction diode

 Definition: A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two

semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a
semiconductor.
 The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes and the
n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons. In a semiconductor, the p-n
junction is created by the method of doping.

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Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

 There are two operating regions in the p-n junction diode:

 P-type
 N-type
 There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is
based on the voltage applied:
 Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.
 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to
the p-type while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to
the p-type and the positive is connected to the n-type.

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Forward Bias

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Forward Bias

 When the p-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and
the n-type to the negative terminal then the p-n junction is said to be
forward-biased.
 When the p-n junction is forward biased, the built-in electric field at
the p-n junction and the applied electric field are in opposite directions.
 When both the electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a
magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field.
 This results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region.
 The depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied
voltage is large.
 In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region
becomes completely negligible and the current flows across it
unimpeded.

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Reverse Bias

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Reverse Bias

 When the p-type is connected to the negative terminal of the

battery and the n-type is connected to the positive side then
the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.
 In this case, the built-in electric field and the applied electric
field are in the same direction.
 When the two fields are added, the resultant electric field is in
the same direction as the built-in electric field creating a more
resistive, thicker depletion region.
 The depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker if
the applied voltage becomes larger.

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V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

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V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
 VI characteristics of PN junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current
through the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the
y-axis. The above graph is the VI characteristics curve of the PN junction diode. With
the help of the curve we can understand that there are three regions in which the diode
works, and they are:
 Zero bias
 Forward bias
 Reverse bias
 When the PN junction diode is under zero bias condition, there is no external voltage
applied and this means that the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow
of current.
 When the PN junction diode is under forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to
the positive terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the
external voltage. When the diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the
potential barrier. For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium
diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential barriers decrease and there is a flow of
current.

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V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
 When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly and the
curve obtained is non-linear as the voltage applied to the diode is
overcoming the potential barrier. Once the potential barrier is
overcome by the diode, the diode behaves normally and the curve rises
sharply as the external voltage increases and the curve obtained is
linear.
 When the PN junction diode is under negative bias condition, the p-
type is connected to the negative terminal while the n-type is connected
to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results in an
increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the
beginning as minority carriers are present in the junction.
 When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have
increased kinetic energy which affects the majority charges. This is the
stage when the diode breaks down. This may also destroy the diode.

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Applications of PN Junction Diode

 p-n junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is

sensitive to the light when the configuration of the diode is
reverse-biased.
 It can be used as a solar cell.
 When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED
lighting applications.
 It is used as rectifiers in many electric circuits and as a
voltage-controlled oscillator in varactors.

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Zener diode
 Zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in the zener breakdown
region (reverse breakdown region), The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is
carefully set by controlling the doping level during manufacture.
 Zener diode If the diode is heavily doped, zener breakdown occurs at low reverse
voltages. On the other hand, if the diode is lightly doped, the zener breakdown
occurs at high reverse voltages.
 Zener diodes are available with zener voltages in the range of 1.8V to 400V. Zener
diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode.
 Hence, it has very thin depletion region. Therefore, it allows more electric current
than the normal p-n junction diodes.
 Zener diode allows electric current in forward direction like a normal diode but
also allows electric current in the reverse direction if the applied reverse voltage is
greater than the zener voltage.
 So, it is always connected in reverse direction because it is specifically designed to
work under reverse bias. Zener diodes are the basic building blocks of electronic
circuits and widely used in all kinds of electronic equipments to protect electronic
circuits from over voltage.

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Symbol of zener diode
 The symbol of zener diode is shown in figure. It consists of two terminals: cathode
and anode. In zener diode, electric current flows from both anode to cathode and
cathode to anode. The symbol of zener diode is similar to the normal p-n junction
diode, but with bend edges on the vertical bar.

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Breakdown in zener diode
 There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a zener diode:
 Avalanche breakdown
 Zener breakdown.
 Avalanche breakdown
 The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and zener diodes at high
reverse voltage.
 When high reverse voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the free electrons
gains large amount of energy and accelerated to greater velocities.
 The free electrons moving at high speed will collides with the atoms and knock off
more electrons.
 These electrons are again accelerated and collide with other atoms. Because of this
continuous collision with the atoms, a large number of free electrons are generated.
 As a result, electric current in the diode increases rapidly. This sudden increase in
electric current may permanently destroys the normal diode.
 However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed because they are carefully
designed to operate in avalanche breakdown region. Avalanche breakdown occurs
in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz ) greater than 6V.

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Avalanche breakdown

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Zener breakdown

 The zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes because of their
narrow depletion region.
 When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow depletion
region generates strong electric field.
 When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode reaches close to zener voltage,
the electric field in the depletion region is strong enough to pull electrons from
their valence band.
 The valence electrons which gains sufficient energy from the strong electric field
of depletion region will breaks bonding with the parent atom and become free
electrons.
 This free electrons carry electric current from one place to another place. At zener
breakdown region, a small increase in voltage will rapidly increases the electric
current.

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Zener breakdown

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VI characteristics of zener diode

 The VI characteristics of a zener diode is shown in the below figure.

 When forward biased voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works like a normal
diode.
 However, when reverse biased voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works in
different manner.
 When reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small
amount of leakage current until the voltage is less than zener voltage.
 When reverse biased voltage applied to the zener diode reaches zener voltage, it
starts allowing large amount of electric current.
 At this point, a small increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increases the electric
current. Because of this sudden rise in electric current, breakdown occurs called
zener breakdown.
 However, zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown that does damage the
device.

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VI characteristics of zener diode

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Advantages of zener diode

 Power dissipation capacity is very high

 High accuracy
 Small size
 Low cost

 Applications of zener diode

 It is normally used as voltage reference
 Zener diodes are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.
 Zener diodes are used in switching operations
 Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits.
 Zener diodes are used in various protection circuits
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Photo diode

 A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an

electric current. They are also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-
sensor. Photodiodes are designed to work in reverse bias condition.

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Photo diode

The symbol of the photodiode is similar to that of an LED but the arrows point inwards as opposed to outwards in the LED. The following image shows the symbol of a photodiode.

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What is a Photodiode?

 It is a form of light sensor that converts light energy into electrical energy (voltage
or current). Photodiode is a type of semi conducting device with PN junction.
Between the p (positive) and n (negative) layers, an intrinsic layer is present. The
photo diode accepts light energy as input to generate electric current.
 It is also called as Photodetector, Photo Sensor or Light Detector. Photodiode
operates in reverse bias condition i.e., the p – side of the photodiode is connected
with negative terminal of battery (or the power supply) and n – side to the positive
terminal of battery.
 Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium Arsenide
Phosphide and Indium gallium arsenide.
 Internally, a photodiode has optical filters, built in lens and a surface area. When
surface area of photodiode increases, it results in less response time.

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Working of a Photodiode

 Generally, when a light is made to illuminate the PN junction, covalent bonds

are ionized.
 This generates hole and electron pairs. Photocurrents are produced due to
generation of electron-hole pairs.
 Electron hole pairs are formed when photons of energy more than 1.1eV hits the
diode.
 When the photon enters the depletion region of diode, it hits the atom with high
energy.
 This results in release of electron from atom structure. After the electron
release, free electrons and hole are produced.
 In general, an electron will have a negative charge and holes will have a positive
charge. The depletion energy will have built-in electric field. Due to that electric
field, electron-hole pairs move away from the junction. Hence, holes move to
anode and electrons move to the cathode to produce photocurrent.
 The photon absorption intensity and photon energy are directly proportional to
each other. When energy of photos is less, the absorption will be more. This
entire process is known as Inner Photoelectric Effect.
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Working of a Photodiode

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V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

 Photodiode operates in reverse bias condition. Reverse voltages are plotted along X
axis in volts and reverse current are plotted along Y-axis in microampere.
 Reverse current does not depend on reverse voltage.
 When there is no light illumination, reverse current will be almost zero.
 The minimum amount of current present is called as Dark Current.
 Once when the light illumination increases, reverse current also increases linearly.

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Applications of Photodiode

 Photodiodes are used in many simple day to day applications. The reason for their
use is the linear response of photodiode to a light illumination. When more amount
of light falls on the sensor, it produces high amount of current. The increase in
current will be displayed on a galvanometer connected to the circuit.
 Photodiodes help to provide an electric isolation with help of optocouplers. When
two isolated circuits are illuminated by light, optocouplers is used to couple the
circuit optically. But the circuits will be isolated electrically. Compared to
conventional devices, optocouplers are fast.
 Photodiodes are also used in safety electronics like fire and smoke detectors. It is
also used in TV units.
 When utilized in cameras, they act as photo sensors. It is used in scintillators
charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
 Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like
instruments to analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used
in blood gas monitors.

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LED (Light Emitting Diode)

 The Light emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source.

 The LED is a special type of diode and they have similar electrical characteristics
of a PN junction diode. Hence the LED allows the flow of current in the forward
direction and blocks the current in the reverse direction.
 The LED occupies the small area which is less than the 1 mm2 . The applications
of LEDs used to make various electrical and electronic projects.
 The light emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode and
made up of a special type of semiconductors. When the light emits in the forward
biased, then it is called as a light emitting diode.

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How does the LED work?
 The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode.
 When the diode is forward biased, then the electrons & holes are moving fast
across the junction and they are combining constantly, removing one another out.
 Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type silicon, it
combines with the holes, and then it disappears.
 Hence it makes the complete atom & more stable and it gives the little burst of
energy in the form of a tiny packet or photon of light.
 From the diagram, we can observe that the N-type silicon is in red color and it
contains the electrons, they are indicated by the black circles.
 The P- type silicon is in the blue color and it contains holes, they are indicated by
the white circles.
 The power supply across the p-n junction makes the diode forward biased and
pushing the electrons from n-type to p-type. Pushing the holes in the opposite
direction.
 Electron and holes at the junction are combined.
 The photons are given off as the electrons and holes are recombined.

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How does the LED work?

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Working Principle Of LED

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V-I Characteristics of LED
 There are different types of light emitting diodes are available in the market and
there are different LED characteristics which include the color light, or wavelength
radiation, light intensity.
 The important characteristic of the LED is color. In the starting use of LED, there
is the only red color. As the use of LED is increased with the help of the
semiconductor process and doing the research on the new metals for LED, the
different colors were formed.

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Applications of Light Emitting Diodes
 LED is used as a bulb in the homes and industries
 The light emitting diodes are used in the motorcycles and cars
 These are used in the mobile phones to display the message
 At the traffic light signals led’s are used

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Photo transistor

 Definition: The phototransistor is a three-layer semiconductor device which has a

light-sensitive base region. The base senses the light and converts it into the current
which flows between the collector and the emitter region.
 The construction of phototransistor is similar to the ordinary transistor, except the
base terminal. In phototransistor, the base terminal is not provided, and instead of
the base current, the light energy is taken as the input.
 Symbol of Phototransistor
 The symbol of the phototransistor is similar to that of the ordinary transistor. The
only difference is that of the two arrows which show the light incident on the base
of the phototransistor.

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Phototransistor Construction

 The construction of the phototransistor is quite similar to the ordinary transistor.

Earlier, the germanium and silicon are used for fabricating the phototransistor. The
small hole is made on the surface of the collector-base junction for placing the lens.
The lens focuses the light on the surface.

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Phototransistor Working
 Nowadays the transistor is made of a highly light effective material (like gallium
and arsenides). The emitter-base junction is kept at forward biased, and the
collector-base junction is at the reverse biased.
 When no light falls on the surface of the transistor, the small reverse saturation
current induces on the transistor. The reverse saturation current induces because of
the few minority charge carriers. The light energy falls on the collector-base
junction and generates the more majority charge carrier which adds the current to
the reverse saturation current. The graph below shows the magnitude of current
increases along with the intensity of light.
 The phototransistor is widely used in electronics devices likes smoke detectors,
infrared receiver, CD players, lasers etc. for sensing light.

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Difference between Photodiode and Phototransistor

Photodiode Phototransistor

The photodiode is a PN-junction The phototransistor is used to

diode, used to generate electric change the energy of the light
current once a photon of light into an electrical energy.
strikes on their surface.

It is less sensitive It is more sensitive

It produces current It produces voltage and current

The output response of The output response of the

photodiode is fast phototransistor is low

In this, both the biasing is used In this, forward biasing is used

like forward and reverse

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Difference between P-N junction diode and
Zener diode
P-N Junction Diode Zener diode
A two terminal semi-conductor A two terminal semi-conductor
device that allows the flow of device that allows the flow of
current in only one ( forward ) current on both forward and
direction is known as P-N reversed direction is known
junction diode. as Zener diode.
P-N junction diodes have low
Zener diodes are highly doped.
doping level.
Zener diodes does not follow
P-N diodes follow Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law.
P-N Junction diodes are widely
Zener diodes are widely used as
used for rectification purpose. It
voltage regulator in reverse
converts AC ( Alternating
biased condition.
Current ) to DC ( Direct Current ).

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Advantages of phototransistors

 Highly sensitive
 Not expensive
 Less complex
 It provides a high amount of current including high gain.

Disadvantages of phototransistors

 It gives a less frequent response.

 When the illumination is low then the circuit is not capable to notice it effectively.
 Electric surges occur frequently

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Applications of phototransistors
 For light detecting and controlling
 In counting systems and punch card readers
 In relays
 Alarm Systems
 Level Indicators
 Proximity Detectors
 Encoders

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Applications of Optoelectronics Devices
 LEDs could become the next generation of lighting and used anywhere
like in indication lights, computer components, medical devices, watches,
instrument panels, switches, fiber-optic communication, consumer
electronics, household appliances, traffic signals, automobile brake lights,
7 segment displays and inactive displays.
 The solar cells are applicable in rural electrification, telecommunication
systems, ocean navigation aids, and electric power generation in space and
remote monitoring and control systems.
 Photodiodes are used in many types of circuits and different applications
such as cameras, medical instruments, safety equipments, industries,
communication devices and industrial equipments.
 Optical fibers are used in telecommunications, sensors, fiber lasers, bio-
medicals and in many other industries.

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Identify terminals of various semiconductor devices using DMM or
CRO

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_9GldZp9dE

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Important Link:
 PN JUNCTION :https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBtEckh3L9Q
 ZENER DIODE:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FxcamP-SYPY
 ZENER DIODE:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08UhVPL7Am0

JYOTI MISHRA(I.C) G.P.AHMEDABA 57

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