Introduction to Information and

Communication Technologies
Lecture # 2
Department of Computer Science
The slides are adapted from the publisher’s material
Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow (Ch2)
Inside the System Unit
The system unit is the main body of a
computer that houses essential
electronic components responsible for
processing data. These components are
connected to the motherboard, which
serves as the primary circuit board of the
computer.

Key Features of the System Unit:

•Purpose: Protects and holds key
electronic components such as the
processor, memory, hard disk, and other
essential hardware.
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Inside the System Unit

Types of System Units:

1.Tower Model:
1. Used in desktop computers.
2. Stands vertically on the desk.
2.All-in-One Computer:
1. Integrates the system unit and monitor into a single case.
3.Laptop Computer:
1. The keyboard and pointing devices are built onto the system
unit.
4.Slate Tablet:
1. The system unit is located behind the display screen.
Inside the System Unit

Physical interfaces that allow cables and

devices to connect properly.

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Memory

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Expansion Slots, Expansion Cards
Expansion slot: A location on the
motherboard into which expansion cards
are inserted
Expansion card: A circuit board used to
add additional functionality or to attach a
peripheral device

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Ports and Connectors
Port: An interface or connection point on the
exterior of a computer’s system unit to which a
peripheral device is attached.
Connector:
Physical interfaces that allow cables and devices to
connect properly.

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Ports and Connectors

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 The
Motherboard

Motherboard or system board: The main circuit

board inside the system unit. Also called main
board/ system board.
 A communication medium for the entire computer system.
 All devices must connect to the motherboard.
 Houses essential components like the processor, memory,
expansion slots.

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The CPU- Brain of the computer
Central processing unit (CPU): connected directly
to the motherboard
 Does the vast majority of processing for a computer
 Processes calculations and transfers data between different components.
 Also called a processor; called a microprocessor when talking
about personal computesr

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 Multi-core processors
• All functions of the processor usually
are on a single chip in personal
computers.
• The manufacturers of processor chips
are also producing multi-core
processors.
• A single chip that contains two or more
separate processors is known as a
multi-core processor.
• Multi-core processing reduces access
time and increases overall processing
speed.
Multi-core processors

• For example, if one core is busy

executing an instruction, another
can handle incoming data or
instructions.

• Multi-core processors include

dual-core, quad-core, six-core,
and eight-core. AMD and Intel
offer multi-core processors.
Multi-core processors

Two common multi-core processors

are as follows:
1.Dual-core Processor
1. A dual-core processor chip contains two separate processors.
2.Quad-core Processor
1. A quad-core processor chip contains four separate
processors.
The CPU

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The CPU

Does i7 Always Mean 7 Cores?

❌ No! The "7" in i7 does NOT mean 7 cores.
•An i7-13700K has 16 cores (8 performance + 8
efficiency cores).
•An older i7-7700K had only 4 cores.
The actual core count and speed change between
generations!

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The CPU

• CPU Components
The CPU consists of two main units:
1.Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
2.Control Unit (CU).

• CPU Instruction
Cycle/Machine Cycle/ Fetch-
Decode-Execute Cycle.
Already discussed in lecture 1 slides
 Instruction Set

A set of all instructions that can be performed

by a CPU is called an instruction set. The
instruction set consists of the following types
of instructions:
•Arithmetic Instructions
•Logical Instructions
•Data Transfer Instructions
•Control Transfer Instructions
1. Arithmetic
Instructions

The instructions used to perform

arithmetic operations are called
arithmetic instructions.
Different arithmetic operations are
addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
These instructions are executed by
the Arithmetic & Logic Unit
(ALU) of the CPU.
2. Logical
Instructions
The instructions used to perform
logical operations are called
logical instructions. A logical
operation is the comparison of
two data values. Possible
comparisons are:
•Greater than (>)
•Equal to (==)
•Less than (<)
3. Data Transfer Instructions

The instructions used to transfer

data from one component to
another during program execution
are called data transfer
instructions.
4. Control Transfer
Instructions
The instructions used to change
the sequence of instructions of
a program are called control
transfer instructions. These
instructions transfer execution
control to a certain part of the
program instead of the next
instruction.
Processing
Speed
Processing speed refers to how fast
a computer’s CPU (Central
Processing Unit) can execute
instructions. It determines how quickly
a computer can perform tasks like
opening programs, running
calculations, or processing data.
Processing
Speed
How is Processing Speed
Measured?
Processing speed is typically
measured in Hertz (Hz), which
indicates the number of cycles
(operations) a processor can
perform per second.
 System clock
• A system clock is an electronic
component that generates generates
electronic pulses (clock cycles) at a
rapid speed, and each pulse tells the
CPU to process the next step of an
instruction. The more pulses per
second, the faster the CPU can work.
• Processing speed:
the speed of the CPU is measured in clock
cycles. A computer clock can tick from
millions to billions of times per
second.
 Processing
Speed (MHz)
•Megahertz = millions of cycles per
second
•Gigahertz (GHz) = billions of cycles per second

•For example, a 3.0 GHz processor can handle 3

billion operations per second. However, clock speed
isn't the only factor affecting performance—other
components like the CPU architecture, number of
cores, and cache memory also play a big role.
Processing
Speed
Processing Speed

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Pipelining
Pipelining is a technique in which
the CPU starts the next
instruction before finishing the
current one. This allows multiple
instructions to be processed at the
same time, increasing speed and
efficiency.
Pipelining
Without pipelining, the CPU
completes one full instruction (fetch
→ decode → execute → store)
before starting the next. This is
slower because each step must wait
for the previous one to finish.
With pipelining, different steps of
multiple instructions overlap, so
while one instruction is being
executed, the next one is already
being decoded. This speeds up
processing and improves computer
Pipelining

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Memory

Memory is the part of a computer

that stores data and
instructions so the CPU can use
them when needed. It is made up of
small storage locations called
cells. Each cell stores a bit (0 or 1),
and eight bits together form a
byte.

Bit=binary digit
Memory

Structure of Main Memory

•The memory consists of
thousands or millions of
storage locations.
•Each byte has a unique address
(like a house number) that helps
the CPU find and access it quickly.
Memory Hierarchy
 Types of
memory
Primary Memory (Volatile Memory)
🔹 Definition → Primary memory is the main
memory of a computer, used for temporary
data storage while the system is running.
🔹 Fastest memory but temporary (volatile)—
data is lost when power is turned off.
Types of Primary Memory:

1.RAM (Random Access Memory) → Stores

active programs and data (temporary storage).

2.Cache Memory → Small, high-speed memory

close to the CPU for quick data access. Level 1 is
fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3. More cache
memory typically means faster processing

3.Registers → Ultra-fast memory inside the

CPU, used for immediate calculations.

💡 Example: If you're working on a Word

document, the content is stored in RAM while
you're typing. If the power goes off, the
document is lost unless saved.
. Secondary Memory (Non-Volatile
Memory)
🔹 Definition → Secondary memory is permanent
storage, used to store data and programs long-term.
🔹 Slower than primary memory but retains data
even after power is turned off.
RAM VS ROM
Bus Width, Bus Speed, and
Bandwidth
Bus:
• An electronic path over
which data can travel
between different
components of computer.
• allowing different parts
(CPU, memory, storage, and
peripherals) to
communicate with each
other efficiently.

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Bus Width
The capacity of a bus depends on
the number of data lines in it.
The amount of data that a bus can
carry at one time is called bus
width. A higher bus width means
that the bus can carry more data. It
increases the performance of the
computer.
A bus with 32 lines can carry 32
bits or 4 bytes at a time. A bus with
64 lines can carry 64 bits or 8
bytes at a time.
Bus Speed
The speed at which data moves
from one component to another
component of the computer is
called bus speed.

Bus width and speed determine the

throughput (or bandwidth) of the bus
 The amount of data that can be transferred by
the bus in a given time period
Interaction between CPU
and RAM
RAM and CPU are both placed
on the motherboard. RAM is a
temporary memory that stores
data and instructions for the
CPU. The CPU takes data and
instructions from RAM when
required. CPU also places
processed data in RAM. The
interaction between CPU and
RAM takes place every time an
instruction is executed. This
interaction takes place with the
help of the computer bus. 43
Interaction between CPU
and RAM
RAM is connected to the CPU through the
data bus, control bus, and address bus.
It is collectively known as the system bus.
The system bus consists of electrical paths to
transfer information between the CPU and
RAM.
The following steps are performed when the
CPU wants to read data from RAM:
1.CPU places the read request on the
control bus.
2.CPU places the address of the required
byte or word on the address bus.
3.Memory unit reads the command and
address. It puts the required data on the
data bus.
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Interaction between CPU
and RAM
The following steps are performed when the
CPU wants to write data to RAM:
1.CPU places the write request on the
control bus.
2.CPU places the address of the word
where to write data on the address bus.
3.Memory unit gets ready to do the
operation.
4.CPU puts data on the data bus.
5.Memory unit reads the data and places
it in the required word.

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Quick Quiz
1. Which type of memory is erased when
the power goes out?
a. ROM
b. RAM
c. flash memory
2. True or False: The CPU can also be called
the motherboard.
3. A(n) electronic path within a computer
over which data travels is called a(n)
_____________.
Answers:
1) b; 2) False; 3) bus

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Making Computers Faster and Better Now
and in the Future
Improving performance today
 Add more memory
 Perform system maintenance
 Uninstall programs properly
 Consider placing large files on external storage
devices
 Delete temporary files
 Scan for viruses and spyware
 Buy a larger or second hard drive
 Upgrade your Internet connection
 Upgrade your video graphics card

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Making Computers Faster and Better Now
and in the Future
Strategies for faster and better
computers
 Improved architecture: faster bus
speeds, multiple CPU cores, etc.
 Pipelining: Allows multiple instructions to
be processed at one time
 Multiprocessing and parallel
processing: Use multiple processors to
speed up processing

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Future Trends in computing
CLASS Activity

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