Scribd
Upload
12 views20 pages

Module 7

The document discusses Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Languages, focusing on the Post's Correspondence Problem (PCP) as a tool for proving undecidability in formal language theory. It also covers computable functions, including definitions of recursive functions, total and partial functions, and primitive recursive functions, with examples illustrating their properties and operations. The document emphasizes the significance of these concepts in understanding the limits of computation and decidability.

Uploaded by

pandiaraj ayyappan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
12 views20 pages

Module 7

The document discusses Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Languages, focusing on the Post's Correspondence Problem (PCP) as a tool for proving undecidability in formal language theory. It also covers computable functions, including definitions of recursive functions, total and partial functions, and primitive recursive functions, with examples illustrating their properties and operations. The document emphasizes the significance of these concepts in understanding the limits of computation and decidability.

Uploaded by

pandiaraj ayyappan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 20

Module 7 –

Recursive and Recursively Enumerable


Languages
Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Languages, Language that is not Recursively
Enumerable (RE) – computable functions – Chomsky Hierarchy – Undecidable
problems -Post’s Correspondence Problem

Topic: Post’s Correspondence Problem, Computable functions

5
Post Correspondence Problem
(PCP)
• Devised by Emli Post
• An abstract problem that involves string rather than
TMs.
• Tool for proving problems in logic or in formal
language theory to be undecidable.
Definition
Example 1
Solution

Decidable – able
to find the
solution
Example: 2
List A List B
a ble
–
1) 1 111 d ab ele
c i
2) 10111 10 De nd th
fi
to t ion
u
3) 10 0 sol

(3) w 101111110
(2) w 10111 x 101111110
x 10
w=x
(1) w 101111
solution: 2 1 1 3
x 10111
(1) w 1011111 2113211321132113
x 10111111
Example: 3
List A List B
a ble
1) bbab a le –
id ab e
c
2) ab abbb De nd th
fi
to t ion
u
3) baa aa sol
4) b bbb
(3) w abbbabbbaa
(2) w ab x abbbabbbaa
x abbb
(1) w abbbab w=x
x abbba solution: 2 1 4 3
(4) w abbbabb 214321432143
x abbbabbb
Example: 4
List A List B ot
n
1) 10 101 b le–
id a t he
2) 011 11 ndec find
U e to
abl tion
3) 101 011 sol
u

(1) w 10 (3) w 10101101


x 101 x 101011011
(1) w 1010
x 101101
(3) w 10101 This problem has no solution.
x 101011
Example: 5
List A List B
not
1) aab aba b le–
id a t he
2) bb bba ndec find
U e to
3) aaaa b abl tion
u
sol

(2) w bb (3) w bbaaaa


x bba x bbab

(1) w bbaab
x bbaaba This problem has no solution.

(1) w bbaabaab
x bbaabaaba
Computable Functions
A recursive function is defined in terms of itself.
1. The recursive definition of factorial is
n! = n * (n-1)! for n ≥1
2. The recursive definition of the exponential xn is defined as
xn = x * xn-1 for n ≥1
• A recursive function can be generalized by defining it in
addition to in terms of itself, possibly in terms of some other
functions.
• Such generalization defines primitive recursion.
• Turing machine is viewed as a mathematical model of partial
recursive function.
Some basic properties:
f : A → B A = N , B = N , N is a set of natural
numbers
1. Total function
A total function from A to B assigns a unique
element of B to every element of A.
f(x) = 2x is a total function.
2. Partial function
A partial function from A to B assigns at most one
element of B to every element of A.
f(x) = + is a partial function.
f(x) is not defined if x is a negative real number.
3. Function of k-variables
A function of k-variables is represented as f(x1, x2, . . . ,
xk).
f(x1, x2) = x1+2x2 is a function of two variables.
4. Primitive recursive function
Some initial functions are taken as primitive recursive
functions. These initial functions are:
a) Zero function
b) Successor function
c) Projection function
A function derived from combination / composition of
primitive recursive functions is primitive recursive.
The zero function z is defined by z(x) = 0

The successor function S is defined by S(x) = x + 1

The Projection function is defined by


(x1, x2, . . . , xn ) = xi

The Projection function selects ith element from a tape


containing n elements.
For example, (3, -9, 2, 6, 9) = 2
5. Composition
If f1, f2, . . . , fk are partial functions of n variables, and g is a partial
function of k variables, then the composition of g with f1, f2, . . . , fk
is a partial function of n variables defined by
g(f1(x1, x2, . . . , xn), f2(x1, x2, . . . , xn), . . . , fk(x1, x2, . . . , xn) )
For example:
If f1(x, y) = x + y , f2(x, y) = 3x , f3(x, y) = xy and g(x, y, z) = x + y
+ 2z be functions over N, then
g(f1(x, y), f2(x, y), f3(x, y)) = ( (x + y) + (3x) + 2(xy)) = (x + y + 3x
+ 2xy)
= (4x + y +
2xy)
If the composition g with f1, f2 and f3 is by a function h, then
h(x, y, z) = 4x + y + 2xy
Def: A function is called primitive recursive if and only if it can be
constructed from the basic functions z, S, by successive composition
and primitive recursion.
Example:1 f(x, y) = x + y
Define f(x, 0) = x = (x)
f(x, y+1) = f(x, y) + 1 = S(f(x, y))
To add 2 and 3,
f(2, 3) = f(2, 2) + 1
= f(2, 1) + 1 + 1
= f(2, 0) + 1 + 1 + 1
=2+1+1+1=5
Example: 2 f(x, y) = x*y
Define f(x, 0) = 0 = z(x)
f(x, y+1) = x + f (x, y) = h( x , f(x, y)) h(x,
y) = x + y
= h( (x, y, f(x, y)) , (x, y, f(x, y)))
multiply 2 and 3
f(2, 3) = 2 + f(2, 2)
= 2 + 2 + f(2, 1)
= 2 + 2 + 2 + f(2, 0)
= 2 + 2+ 2 + 0 = 6
Example:3
f(x, y) = x – y if x ≥ y
=0 if x < y
Now, we define the predecessor function
pred(0) = 0
pred(y + 1) = y
And from it, the subtraction function
subtr(x, 0) = x
subtr(x, y+1) = pred(subtr(x, y))
To prove that 5 – 3 = 2
subtr(5, 3) = pred(subtr(5, 2))
= pred(pred(subtr(5, 1)))
= pred(pred(pred(subtr(5, 0))))
= pred(pred(pred(5)))
= pred(pred(4))
= pred(3)
=2
Example:4
f(n) = n!

fact(0) = 1
fact(x+1) = (x+1)*fact(x)
= S(x)*fact(x)
= g(x, fact(x))
= S( = (x + 1) * fact(x)
n=5
fact(5) = fact(4+1) = 5 * fact(4) = 5 * fact(3 + 1) = 5 * 4 * fact(3) =5 * 4 *
fact(2 + 1)
= 5 * 4 * 3 * fact(2) = 5 * 4 * 3 * fact(1 + 1) = 5 * 4 * 3
* 2 * fact(1)
= 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * fact ( 1 + 0) = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1* fact(0)
= 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 * 1 = 120

You might also like