EE3405

ELECTRICAL MACHINES – II
UNIT I: SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

UNIT II: SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

UNIT III: THREE PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR
UNIT IV: STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL
OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

UNIT V: SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION

MOTORS AND SPECIAL MACHINES
 UNIT - 1

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Constructional details – Types of rotors –winding factors-
emf equation – Synchronous reactance – Armature
reaction – Phasor diagrams of non salient pole
synchronous generator connected to infinite bus--
Synchronizing and parallel operation – Synchronizing
torque -Change of excitation and mechanical input-
Voltage regulation – EMF, MMF, ZPF and A.S.A methods
– steady state power angle characteristics– Two reaction
theory –slip test -short circuit transients - Capability
Curves
 What is a Machine?

What is a Electrical Machine?

 Principle
 Electromagnetic Induction
Electro Magnetic Induction Principle
Flemings right hand rule
Construction of 3-Phase
Machine
 Comparison - Construction
Alternator DC Generator

Stator Armature Field Winding

winding

Rotor Field Winding Armature

winding

Commutator Absence Presence

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
• A synchronous generator is a synchronous machine
which converts mechanical power into AC electric
power through the process of electromagnetic
induction.
• Synchronous generators are also referred to
as alternators or AC generators. The term "alternator"
is used since it produces AC power. It is called
synchronous generator because it must be driven at
synchronous speed to produce AC power of the
desired frequency.
 Definition of Alternator

The definition of alternator is hidden in the

name of this machine itself. An alternator is
such a machine which produces alternation
electricity. It is a kind of generators which
converts mechanical energy into alternating
electrical energy. It is also known as
synchronous generator.
 In Synchronous Generator, a DC current is applied to
rotor winding (produce rotor magnetic field).
 The rotor is turned by prime-mover producing a
rotating magnetic field.
 The rotating magnetic field produce three phase sets
of voltages within the stator.
Armature winding [in stator]
Field winding [in rotor]
 Advantages of Stationary Armature
1) Economical

2) Better insulation

3) Ease of current collection

4) Increased armature tooth strength

5) More rigid construction

6) Reduces armature leakage reactance

7) Lesser number of slip rings

8) Lesser rotor weight and inertia

9) Improved ventilation and Heat dissipation

Construction of Alternator
• Construction of Synchronous Generator or
Alternator
• As alternator consists of two main parts viz.
• Stator – The stator is the stationary part of the
alternator. It carries the armature winding in
which the voltage is generated. The output of the
alternator is taken form the stator.
• Rotor – The rotor is the rotating part of the
alternator. The rotor produces the main field flux.
• Stator Construction of Alternator
• The stator of the alternator includes several parts, viz. the frame, stator
core, stator or armature windings, and cooling arrangement.
• The stator frame may be made up of cast iron for small-size machines and
of welded steel for large-size machines.
• The stator core is assembled with high-grade silicon content steel
laminations. These silicon steel laminations reduce the hysteresis and
eddy-current losses in the stator core.
• The slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core. A 3-phase
armature winding is put in these slots.
• The armature winding of the alternator is star connected. The winding of
each phase is distributed over several slots. When current flows through
the distributed armature winding, it produces an essential sinusoidal
space distribution of EMF.
• Rotor Construction of Alternator
• The rotor of the alternator carries the field winding
which is supplied with direct current through two
slip rings by a separate DC source (also called
exciter). The exciter is generally a small DC shunt
generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
• For the alternator, there are two types of rotor
constructions are used viz. the salient-pole
type and the cylindrical rotor type.
 Salient Pole Rotor
The term salient means projecting. Hence, a salient pole
rotor consists of poles projecting out from the surface of the
rotor core. This whole arrangement is fixed to the shaft of the
alternator as shown in the figure. The individual field pole
windings are connected in series such that when the field
winding is energised by the DC exciter, the adjacent poles have
opposite polarities.
• he salient pole type rotor is used in the low and medium speed
(from 120 to 400 RPM) alternators such as those driven by the
diesel engines or water turbines because of the following
reasons −
• The construction of salient pole type rotor cannot be made
strong enough to withstand the mechanical stresses to which
they may be subjected at higher speed.
• If the salient field pole type rotor is driven at high speed, then it
would cause windage loss and would tend to produce noise.
• Low speed rotors of the alternators possess a large diameter to
provide the necessary space for the poles. As a result, the salient
pole type rotors have large diameter and short axial length.
• Cylindrical Rotor
• The cylindrical rotors are made from solid forgings of high-grade
nickel-chrome-molybdenum steel.
• The construction of the cylindrical rotor is such that there are no-
physical poles to be seen as in the salient pole rotor.
• In about two-third of the outer periphery of the cylindrical rotor,
slots are cut at regular intervals and parallel to the rotor shaft.
• The field windings are placed in these slots and is excited by DC
supply. The field winding is of distributed type.
• The unslotted portion of the rotor forms the pole faces.
• It is clear from the figure of the cylindrical rotor that the poles
formed are non-salient, i.e., they do not project out from the rotor
surface.
• The cylindrical type rotor construction is used in the high-speed (1500
to 3000 RPM) alternators such as those driven by steam turbines
because of the following reasons −
• The cylindrical type rotor construction provides a greater mechanical
strength and permits more accurate dynamic balancing.
• It gives noiseless operation at high speeds because of the uniform air
gap.
• The flux distribution around the periphery of the rotor is nearly a sine
wave and hence a better EMF waveform is obtained.
• A cylindrical rotor alternator has a comparatively small diameter and
long axial length. The cylindrical rotor alternators are called turbo-
alternators or turbo-generators. The alternator with cylindrical rotor
have always horizontal configuration installation
 Stator Construction

The alternator winding is always connected in STAR and the

neutral is connected to the ground
• Stator
 To produce induced e.m.f
 Special steel stampings with laminations
for stator core
 laminations is provided to limits the
eddy current losses.
Stator
 Rotor Construction

 The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct

current through two slip rings by a separate DC source
 Slip rings are metal rings completely encircling the shaft of a
machine but insulated from it. One end of a DC rotor winding
is connected to each of the two slip rings on the machine’s
shaft. Graphite-like carbon brushes connected to DC
terminals ride on each slip ring supplying DC voltage to field
windings regardless the position or speed of the rotor.
Slip rings

Brush
1.Salient pole type (or) projected pole type

2. Non - Salient pole type (or) smooth cylindrical pole type

 salient pole type P > 4 , low speed, 125 rpm to 500 rpm
 Non salient type P < 4 , high speed, 1500 rpm to 3000 rpm
 Comparison - Rotor
S.No Salient pole rotor Smooth cylindrical type rotor

1. Poles are projected Poles are non- projecting on the

out from the surface cylinder
2. Air gap is non- Air gap is uniform
uniform
3. Mechanically weak Robust

4. For low or medium For high speed applications

speed applications
Working of Alternator
 The speed of rotation and internal voltage of Syn.
Generator

• Synchronous means that

the electrical frequency
produced is locked with nm P 120 f
fe   nm 
the mechanical rate of 120 P
rotation of the
generator.
E A  2N cf K
• The internal voltage in
K : constant represents
SG is given by construction of machine
following formula:
: radian /s
By the definition, synchronous generators produce electricity whose
frequency is synchronized with the mechanical rotational speed.

Where fe is the electrical frequency, Hz;

nm is mechanical speed of magnetic field (rotor speed for synchronous

machine), rpm;
P is the number of poles.

Steam turbines are most efficient when rotating at high speed;

therefore, to generate 60 Hz, they are usually rotating at 3600 rpm
and turn 2-pole generators.
Water turbines are most efficient when rotating at low speeds (200-
300 rpm); therefore, they usually turn generators with many poles.
EMF equation of an Alternator

Em = 4.44 f ɸ Tph Volts

Em = 4.44 Kd Kp f ɸ Tph Volts

Em = 4.44 Kw f ɸ Tph Volts

Kd = distribution factor
Kp = pitch factor
 Rating of Alternator
Power rating of alternator is defined as the power which can be delivered
by an alternator safely and efficiently under some specific conditions.
Increasing load, increases losses in alternator, which leads to temperature
rise of the machine. The conductor and insulator parts of the machine have
some specific over heating withstand limits. The power rating of an
alternator is so specified, that at that maximum load, the temperature rise of
different parts of the machine does not cross their specified safe limit. The
copper losses i.e. I2R loss varies with armature current and core losses vary
with voltage. The temperature rise or heating of alternator depends upon
cumulative effect of copper losses and core losses. As there is no role of
power factor upon these losses, the rating of alternator generally given in
VA or KVA or MVA.
Alternator at No – load
Parameters of Armature winding
Armature resistance (Ra)
Armature leakage reactance (XL)
Reactance (Xar) due to armature
reaction
 Armature Reaction in Alternator or
Synchronous Generator
 In the air gap there are two fluxes
One due to the current through the field
winding known as main flux and
The other due to current through the
armature known as armature flux
 The effect of armature flux on main flux is
known as armature reaction
The effect of the nature of load power factor
on armature reaction
Unity Power Factor Load
Zero Lagging Power Factor Load
Zero Leading Power Factor Load
 Unity Power Factor Load (pure resistive load)

 It is clear that Φa can opposes as well as assist and there fore

average flux in the airgap is always constant
 Inspite of maintaining a constant airgap flux, the distribution of
armature reaction under unity power factor condition of the load
is known as cross magnetizing effect of armature reaction.
 Zero Lagging Power Factor Load (pure Inductive load)

 It is clear that Φa & Φ f are exactly in opposite direction to each

other
 This is known as demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
 Zero Leading Power Factor Load (pure Capacitive load)

 It is clear that Φa & Φ f are exactly in same direction to each

other
 This is known as magnetizing effect of armature reaction.
 For any power factor of the load, the armature
reaction has
Cross – magnetizing components proportional to I cos ɸ
Demagnetizing components proportional to I sin ɸ
It takes positive for lagging power factor and negative for
leading power factor.
 Alternator ON - Load

When the load on an alternator changes, the

terminal voltage ‘V’ also changes. The change in
‘V’ is due to the following three effects

i) Voltage drop in armature resistance Ra

ii) Voltage drop in armature leakage reactance XL

iii) Voltage drop due to armature reaction

Synchronous generator
 PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATOR
or
SYNCHRONISING OF ALTERNATOR

The operation of connecting an Alternator in

parallel with another Alternator (or) with common
bus bar is known as synchronising
Reasons for paralleling of Alternator

 Reliability

 Continuity of Service

 Load Requirements

 High Efficiency

 Expanded Capacity
 Conditions for Synchronization or
Paralleling of Generators

There are certain requirements that must be met for successful

paralleling of alternators. The following conditions must be met in
order to synchronize a generator to the grid or with other
generators.
Phase Sequence

Voltage Magnitude

Frequency

Phase Angle
 Techniques for Synchronization

There are different techniques being available for the

synchronization of alternators. The primary purpose of these
techniques is to check all four conditions discussed above.
The common methods used for synchronizing the
alternators are given below.

1. Three Dark Lamps Method

2. Two Bright, One Dark Method

3. Synchroscope Method
1. Three Dark Lamps Method
 Lamps glow bright and
dark simultaneously,
(it indicates the correctness
of phase sequence)
 Lamps glow bright and
dark one after the other,
(it indicates to interchange
the two phase terminals)
 Lamps flickers,
(it indicates the correctness
of frequency by
adjusting the speed)
2. Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method

 This method is used

to find the incoming
frequency is higher
or lower than the bus
bar frequency
 But the correctness
of the phase
sequence cannot be
checked by this
method
2. Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method
 First the voltage between the Bus
bar and the incoming alternator is
checked using voltmeters.
 Lamps flickers from bright to dark
simultaneously in this sequence
L1, L2, L3
(it indicates that the frequency of the
incoming alternator is greater
than the bus bar frequency)
 Lamps flickers from bright to dark
simultaneously in this sequence
L1, L3, L2
(it indicates that the frequency of the
incoming alternator is lesser than
 Drawbacks of 'synchronization using
incandescent lamps' method are:
 Synchronization by using incandescent lamps depends
on the correct judgement of the operator.
 This method does not tell how slow or fast the machine
is.
 To use this method for high voltage alternators, extra
step down transformers need to be added as ratings of
lamps are normally low.
3. Synchroscope Method
 Losses and Efficiency of Alternator
 In other words, as the losses of alternator are independent of
electrical power factor, hence power factor does not come into
picture while power rating of an alternator is calculated or
estimated. Although losses of alternator depends upon its KVA or
MVA rating but actual output varies with electrical power factor
Copper loss
(due to armature winding and field coils)
Core loss
(due to Hysteresis and eddy current loss)
Friction and windage loss
Load losses
(due to armature leakage flux, eddy and hysteresis
 Losses and Efficiency of Alternator

Alternator Efficiency

For maximum efficiency iron loss is equal to copper loss

 Determination of losses

Two methods:
1. Measurement of loss method
2. By use of calibrated DC motor to drive alternator
 Synchronizing Power is defined as the varying of the synchronous
power P with respect to vary in the load angle δ. It is also
called Stiffness of Coupling, Stability or Rigidity factor. It is
represented as Psyn. A synchronous machine, whether a generator or a
motor, when synchronized to infinite Busbars has an inherent
tendency to remain in Synchronism.

 Synchronizing Torque Coefficient gives rise to the synchronizing

torque coefficient at synchronous speed. That is, the Synchronizing

Torque is the torque which at synchronous speed gives the

synchronizing power.
Load sharing between two alternators
Effect of change in Excitation
Effect of change in Mechanical input
 Ef1 advances Ef2 by a small angle δ
 Current lags the resultant voltage Er by an angle of 90 ͦ
 Power per phase of alternator 1 is increased where as
power per phase of alternator 2 is decreased
 Increase in mechanical input has no effect on the
divisions of reactive power (KVA)
 But the active power (KW) of alternator 1 is increased
and decreased in alternator 2
VOLTAGE REGULATION

OF THE

ALTERNATOR
 Contents
Definition

Methods to determine voltage regulation

Field Coils
 What is Voltage Regulation.. ??
 A convenient way to compare the voltage behaviour of two
generators is by their voltage regulation (VR). The VR of a
synchronous generator at a given load, power factor, and at rated
speed is defined as E nl  V fl
VR  100%
V fl
 Where Vfl is the full-load terminal voltage, and Enl (equal to Ef) is

the no-load terminal voltage (internal voltage) at rated speed

when the load is removed without changing the field current.
 For lagging power factor (PF), VR is fairly positive, for unity PF,
VR is small positive and for leading PF, VR is negative.
Determination of Voltage Regulation
 Direct Load Test
 The alternator runs at synchronous speed, and its terminal voltage
is adjusted to its rated value V. The load is varied until the
Ammeter and Wattmeter indicate the rated values at the given
power factor. The load is removed, and the speed and the field
excitation are kept constant. The value of the open circuit and no
load voltage is recorded.
 It is also found from the percentage voltage regulation and is
given by the equation shown below.

 The method of direct loading is suitable only for small alternators

of the power rating less than 5 kVA.
 Methods to determine voltage regulation
 Direct Method
 In-direct Method
1) EMF Method (or) Synchronous Impedance method by
Prof. Behn Eschenberg
2) MMF Method (or) Ampere-turn method by Prof. Rothert
3) Zero Power Factor Method (or) Potier method by
Prof. Potier
4) ASA Method (American Standard Association) also
called as modified MMF method
BEHN-ESCHENBURG, HANS (1864-1938)
Prof. Rothert
Voltage regulation by synchronous
impedance method
To find the voltage regulation following data are required:
 Resistance of armature or stator winding per phase
(Ra)
 Open circuit characteristic
 Short circuit characteristic. (Zero powerfactor lagging
characteristics is required for Potier method)
 Resistance of armature
 The resistance of armature or stator winding per
phase can be determined by using voltmeter-
ammeter method or by using wheastone bridge.
 The effective stator winding resistance is always
greater than dc value due to skin effect.
 Ac resistance may be taken approximately 1.2 to
1.6 times the DC resistance measured.
 Open-circuit test
 The generator is turned at the rated speed
 The terminals are disconnected from all loads, and the field
current is set to zero.
 Then the field current is gradually increased in steps, and
the terminal voltage is measured at each step along the way.
 It is thus possible to obtain an open-circuit characteristic of a
generator (Ef or Vt versus If) from this
 Short-circuit test
 Adjust the field current to zero and short-circuit the
terminals of the generator through a set of ammeters.
 Record the armature current Isc as the field current is
increased.
 Such a plot is called short-circuit characteristic.
 Synchronous Impedance Method
or
EMF Method
 The Synchronous Impedance Method is based on
the concept of replacing the effect of armature
reaction by an imaginary reactance.
Test performed for EMF method

• Tests:
– Conduct the tests to find OCC (upto 125% of rated
voltage)
– Conduct the tests to find SCC (for rated current)
– Conduct the tests to find Armature resistance (per
phase)
1. Plot on the same graph sheet, the O.C.C (open circuit terminal
voltage per phase versus the field current), and the short-circuit
characteristic (short-circuit armature current versus the field
current).
2. Calculate the unsaturated value of the synchronous impedance, and
the value corresponding to rated current at short circuit. Also
calculate the corresponding values of the synchronous reactance.
3. Calculate regulation of the alternator under the following
conditions:
 Full load current at unity power factor
 Full load current at 0.8 power factor lagging
 Full -load current at 0.8 power factor leading.
 Calculation of Synchronous Impedance
The following steps are given below for the calculation of the
synchronous impedance.
 The open circuit characteristics and the short circuit characteristic
are drawn on the same curve.
 Determine the value of short circuit current I sc and gives the rated
alternator voltage per phase.
 The synchronous impedance ZS will then be equal to the open circuit
voltage divided by the short circuit current at that field current
which gives the rated EMF per phase.

The synchronous reactance is determined as

• From the above figure consider the
field current If = OA that produces
rated alternator voltage per phase.
Corresponding to this field current,
the open circuit voltage is AB
• Therefore,
 Determination of Xs
 For a particular field current IfA, the internal voltage Ef
(=VA) could be found from the occ and the short-circuit
current flow Isc,A could be found from the scc.
 Then the synchronous reactance Xs could be obtained using
2 2
V A  E f 
E or V (V)
f t
Air-gap line Z s ,unsat  Ra  X s ,unsat 
I scA
OCC Isc (A)
Vrated 2 2
SCC
X s ,unsat  Z s , unsat R a

: Ra is known from the DC test.

VA
Isc,B
Since Xs,unsat>>Ra,
Isc, A Ef Vt , oc
If (A) X s ,unsat  
IfA IfB I scA I scA
Unity Powerfactor
Lagging Powerfactor
Leading Powerfactor
 Assumptions in the Synchronous Impedance
Method
The following assumptions made in the synchronous Impedance
Method are given below.
 The synchronous Impedance is constant
 The synchronous impedance is determined from
the O.C.C and S.C.C. It is the ratio of the open circuit voltage to the
short circuit current. When the O.C.C and S.C.C are linear,
the synchronous impedance ”ZS ” is constant.
 The flux under test conditions is the same as that under load
conditions.
 It is assumed that a given value of the field current always produces
the same flux. This assumption introduces considerable error. When
the armature is short circuited, the current in the armature lag the
generated voltage by almost 90 degrees and hence the armature
reaction is almost completely demagnetizing.
 The effect of the armature reaction flux can be replaced by a voltage
drop proportional to the armature current and that the armature
reaction voltage drop is added to the armature reactance voltage drop.
 The magnetic reluctance to the armature flux is constant regardless of
the power factor.

 For a cylindrical rotor machine, this assumption is substantially true

because of the uniform air gap. Regulation obtained by using a
synchronous impedance method is higher than that obtained by actual
loading. Hence, this method is also called the Pessimistic method.
 At lower excitations, ZS is constant, since the open circuit
characteristics coincide with the air gap line. This value of Z S is called
the linear or Unsaturated Synchronous Impedance. However, with
increasing excitation the effect of saturation is to decrease Z S and the
values beyond the linear part of the open circuit called as Saturated
Value of the Synchronous Impedance.
 Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous
Impedance Method
 The main advantages of this method is the value of synchronous

impedance Zs for any load condition can be calculated. Hence

regulation of the alternator at any load condition and load power
factor can be determined. Actual load need not be connected to the
alternator and hence method can be used for very high capacity
alternators.
 The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large
values of synchronous reactance. This leads to high values of
percentage regulation than the actual results. Hence this method is
called ‘Pessimistic’ method.
 Example
A 200 kVA, 480-V, 60-Hz, 4-pole, Y-Connected synchronous
generator with a rated field current of 5 A was tested and the
following data was taken.
a) from OC test – terminal voltage = 540 V at rated field
current
b) from SC test – line current = 300A at rated field current
c) from Dc test – DC voltage of 10 V applied to two
terminals, a current of 25 A was measured.

1. Calculate the speed of rotation in r/min

2. Calculate the generated emf and saturated equivalent
circuit parameters (armature resistance and synchronous
reactance)
1.
Solution j1.0 0.2
fe = electrical frequency = Pnm/120 2
+
fe = 60Hz Ia
+
Ef Vt
P = number of poles = 4
nm = mechanical speed of rotation in r/min.

So, speed of rotation nm = 120 fe / P

2. In open-circuit=test,
(120I x=60)/4
a 0 and= E1800
f =Vt
r/min

Ef = 540/1.732
= 311.8 V (as the machine is Y-connected)
In short-circuit test, terminals are shorted, Vt = 0

Ef = IaZs or Zs = Ef /Ia =311.8/300=1.04 ohm

From the DC test, Ra=VDC/(2IDC)

Synchronous reactance

Z s , sat  R a2  X s2, sat

2 2 2 2
X s, sat  Z s, sat  Ra  1.04  0.2 1.02
 Voltage regulation by MMF
(Magneto-motive Force) Method
 MMF Method is also known as Ampere Turn Method.
 This method is the converse of EMF method.
 The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of
replacing the effect of armature reaction by an imaginary
reactance (or fictitious reactance) the Magneto-motive force
(MMF).
 The MMF method replaces the effect of armature leakage
reactance by an equivalent additional armature reaction MMF
so that this MMF may be combined with the armature reaction
 This method is based on the results of open & short circuit tests on an
alternator, For an alternator, the field MMF is required to produce the normal
voltage V on full load is the vector sum of the following;
 Field MMF required to produce rated terminal voltage on no-load
 Field MMF required to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction on full load
 On short circuit condition, the field MMF required to produce full
load current balances the impedance drop & armature reaction.
 But since Ra & XL are very small due to S.C ,the impedance drop
can be neglected.
 Hence Power factor on S.C is almost zero lagging & the field MMF
are used completely to overcome the demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction.
 Therefore the demagnetizing armature MMF on full load are equal
& opposite to the field MMF required to produce Full load current
on S.C.
• Steps to draw the phasor diagram:

1. By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC

2. From the OCC find the field current If1 is determined to give rated
voltage, V.

3. From SCC find the magnitude of field current If2 is determined to the
required armature current. (Short circuit current equal to full load
current)

4. Draw If2 at angle (90+Φ) from If1, where Φ is the phase angle of current

from voltage. If current is leading, take the angle of If2 as (90-Φ).

5. Find the resultant field current, If and mark its magnitude on the field
current axis.

6. From OCC. find the voltage corresponding to If, which will be E0.
If2
• Determine the phasor sum of the field currents I f1 and If2. This

gives the resultant field current If which would generate a voltage

E0 under no load conditions of the alternator. The open circuit

EMF E0 corresponding to the field current if is found from the

open circuit characteristics
• The regulation of the alternator is found from the relation shown
below.

• This method is also known as optimistic method. It gives values

lower than actual values because the excitation to overcome
armature reaction is determined on unsaturated part of the
 Zero power factor method
 This method is the improvement over the emf and mmf methods
 The emf method gives results which are higher and the mmf
method gives results lower than the actual values of voltage
regulation
 This method is based on the separation of armature leakage
reactance drop & armature reaction effects.
 In this method, the armature leakage reactance XL is called potier
reactance.
 The following experimental data is required to determine the
regulation by this method
 Resistance of armature or stator winding per phase
 Open circuit characteristics (No load curve)
 Zero power factor curve (Z.P.F full-load curve)
 Z.P.F is the curve between terminal voltage & excitation when the armature
is delivering full-load current at zero power factor while the machine is
running at synchronous speed.
 Z.P.F full load curve can be obtained:
 By loading the alternator with highly inductive load & the field current
corresponding to full-load armature current at zero p.f and rated voltage
is noted.
 Field current corresponding to rated current under short circuit test is
noted.
 In this test, the alternator is connected to a purely inductive load
through the ammeter.
 The speed of the alternator is maintained constant at its synchronous
value.
 The load current delivered by an alternator to purely inductive load
is maintained constant at its rated full load value by varying
excitation & adjusting variable inductance of the inductive load.
 Fig shows the circuit diagram for performing Z.P.F full load test on
3- Alternator.
Steps:
1. By suitable tests plot OCC and
SCC
2. Draw tangent to OCC (air gap line)
3. Conduct ZPF test at full load for
rated voltage and fix the point B.
4. Draw the line BH with length
equal to field current required to
produce full load current at short
circuit.
5. Draw HD parallel to the air gap
line so as to touch the OCC.
6. Draw DE parallel to voltage axis.
Now, DE represents voltage drop
IXL and BE represents the field
current required to overcome the
effect of armature reaction.
Triangle BDE is called Potier triangle and
7.Find E from V, IXL and Φ.
Consider Ra also if required. The
expression to use is

8.Find field current corresponding

to E.
9.Draw FG with magnitude equal to
BE at angle (90+Ψ) from field
current axis, where Ψ is the
phase angle of current from
voltage vector E (internal phase
angle).
10.The resultant field current is
given by OG. Mark this length
on field current axis.
11.From OCC find the
corresponding E0.
Potier Regulation diagram
Lo a d cu
rrent p toE
arallel t in g
I2 o OB
p o n d
s
c o rr e
e nt
u rr
c
ie ld
f
Tot

te d
a
a

R
I1
l ex

If
cita
tio
nr
equ

A
ire
d

C
B
 Vector ‘OL’ will lag behind vector ‘OG’ by 90˚
 Vector ‘DL’ represents the voltage drop due to armature
reaction
 Now the regulation can be obtained from the relation;
 ASA method
(American Standard Association)
 ASA method is the modification of the MMF and Potier method
 It gives the very accurate results as saturation of magnetic circuit
is taken into account
 Two quantities are required,
Field mmf required to circulate full-load armature current
under short – circuit condition and XL is the leakage
reactance.
Field mmf is obtained by emf or mmf method

Leakage reactance XL can be computed from potier method

Tests:
Conduct tests to find;
OCC (upto 125% of rated voltage)
SCC (for rated current)
ZPF (for rated current and rated voltage)
Armature Resistance (if required)
 ASA method is the modification of the MMF and Potier method
 The total field currents required to generate a voltage on No-load

is obtained by adding vectorially the field currents If1 and If2

 If1 is the field current required to generate the rated voltage on

load

 If2 is the field current required to circulate full load current by

neutralize the effect of armature reaction.

Steps:
1. Follow steps as in ZPF method.
2.Find If1 corresponding to terminal
voltage V using air gap line (OF1 in
figure).
3. Draw If2 with length equal to field
current required to circulate rated
current during short circuit condition
at an angle (90+Φ) from If1. The
resultant of If1 and If2 gives If (OF2 in
figure).
4. Extend OF2 upto F so that F2F
accounts for the additional field
current accounting for the effect of
saturation. F2F is found for voltage E
as shown.
5. Project total field current OF to the
field current axis and find
 Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous
Machine
The Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine is
defined as the ratio of the field current required to generate rated
voltage on an open circuit to the field current required to circulate
rated armature current on short circuit.

Field current required to produce 

 
rated voltage on open circuit 
SCR =
Field current required to produce 
 
rated current on short circuit 
131
 p.u volt
Direct axis reactance, X d 
p.u SC current
1
SCR 
Xd

 Thus SCR is the reciprocal of Xd

 Xd Saturated synchronous reactance

 Important effect on the performance of the machine
and cost
 For Non-salient pole alternators : 1- 1.5
 For Salient pole alternators : 0.5 – 0.7
 Effect of SCR on machine performance
Voltage regulation : A low SCR → high Xd → large voltage
drop → poor voltage regulation..
Parallel operation : A low SCR → high Xd → low
synchronizing power → parallel operation becomes difficult.
Short circuit current : A low SCR → high Xd →low short
circuit current. But short circuit current can be limited by other
means not necessarily by keeping a low value of SCR.
Self excitation : Alternators feeding long transmission lines
should not be designed with small SCR as this would lead to
large terminal voltage on open circuit due to large capacitance
currents.
 High value of SCR  i) High stability limit, ii) Low voltage
regulation, iii) High short circuit current and iv)Large air gap
v) Large field vi) costlier vii) Stator Size increases.
 Modern design is with low SCR.
 Two Reaction Theory of Salient pole
Synchronous Alternator

 Two reaction theory was proposed by Andre Blodel

 In Armature reaction: The
reluctance of the magnetic
circuit is same all around it but,
work only for cylindrical pole
type due to uniform airgap
 But in a salient pole machine
(none cylindrical rotor with
poles facing outwards) the air
gap is not uniform.
 To study the effect of armature flux on the main flux in salient pole
alternator, Blondel proposed the two reaction theory
 To model the machine, the stator reactance or armature mmf is
broken down into two components;
 one parallel to the rotor axis (direct d-axis) and one perpendicular
(quadrature q-axis) displaced by 90 degrees to each other.
 Phase difference between the armature current and phase
excitation voltage will be in between 0˚ to 90˚
 The armature will have both the direct acting and a quadrature
components
 The direct acting component is proportional to the sine of the
phase angle between the armature current and excitation voltage
Fd = Fa sin Ɵ
 The quadrature acting component is proportional to the cosine
angle between the armature current and excitation voltage
Fq = Fa cos Ɵ
 The two reactance component will be similar to the synchronous
impedance, in armature reaction is taken by means of equivalent
armature reactance voltage
 The equivalent reactance of the direct axis component will be
greater than the quadrature axis component of the armature mmf.
 Thus the two reactance concept of salient pole type, replaces the
 Reactance voltage drop are IdXad and IqXaq

 Id and Iq are the components of armature current along direct and

quadrature axis
 Each component of armature current, produces a leakage –
reactance voltage caused by the armature leakage flux

 The armature leakage flux XL is same for both components of the

armature current
 The synchronous reactance for each component of the armature
mmf will be

 Direct axis synchronous reactance current; Xsd = Xad + XL

 Quadrature axis synchronous reactance current; Xsq = Xaq + XL

Where;
Φ – power factor angle
α – internal angle
θ=Φ+α
V – rated terminal voltage
Ia – full load armature current
Id – direct axis current
Iq – quadrature axis current
Id = Ia cos (90° - θ) = Ia sin θ
Iq = Ia cos θ
The voltage drop Ia Ra , Id Xsd , Iq Xsq and are added to “V”
vectorially
The resultant voltage E0 = V + Ia Ra + Id Xsd + Iq Xsq
In the above expression E0, V, Ia and Ra are known,
The reactance Xd and Xq are obtained from slip test
 Slip Test
(for salient pole machines only)
 Slip test is used to find the ratio of xd/xq , that is the ratio of
direct axis to quadrature axis.
 This is practically done by rotating the rotor of the alternator by
an external prime mover (generally a dc motor) while rotor
windings of the alternator are kept open.
 And the difference in speed of rmf Ns (revolving magnetic
field) and N (speed of prime mover or rotor speed) is called is
SLIP.
Prime Mover Speed will be
Slightly less or more than
Ns Field Coils
 But in the slip test, a three phase supply is applied to the armature,
having voltage must less than the rated voltage while the field
winding circuit is kept open.
 The alternator is run at a speed close to synchronous but little less
than or greater than the synchronous value.
 The three phase currents drawn by the armature from a three
phase supply produce a rotating flux. Thus the armature m.m.f.
wave is rotating at synchronous speed as shown in the Fig
 Field winding – opened
 Around 25 % of rated value of voltage and frequency is applied to
the stator terminals
 Condition; relative velocity between the field poles and the
rotating armature mmf will be equal to the difference between the
synchronous speed NS and rotor speed Nr called slip.

 Small AC voltage is indicated in the field coil terminals, only

when the field poles and rotating mmf are revolving in the same
direction.
 D – axis reactance (Xd)
 Reluctance will be minimum due to small air-gap, which results in

minimum magnetizing current Imin – indicated in the ammeter

 At this axis the armature flux linkage with field flux is maximum
 Rate of change of flux linkage is minimum.
 Induced voltage across the field winding is zero.
 Q – axis reactance (Xq)
 Reluctance will be maximum due to larger air-gap, which results

in maximum magnetizing current Imax – indicated in the ammeter

 At this axis the armature flux linkage with field flux is minimum
 Rate of change of flux linkage is maximum.
 Induced voltage across the field winding is maximum.
 Power Angle Characteristics of Synchronous
Generator
 The relation between Pi and δ is known as power angle

characteristics of the machine.

 The maximum power occurs at δ = 90o . Beyond this point the
machine falls out of step and loses synchronism. The machine can
be taken up to Pi max only by gradually increasing the load. This is
known as the steady state stability limit of the machine. The is
normally operated at δ much less than 90o.
 Synchronizing Torque : - the torque required to get
back the alternator to the steady state position.
 Synchronizing Power : - the Power required to get
back the alternator to the steady state position.