BUILDING

CONSTRUCTIO
N
III

HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE, PRE-

STRESSED CONCRETE AND STEEL
CONSTRUCTION
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed 3. HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE, PRE-
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction STRESSED CONCRETE AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION
Foundations Systems 3.1

Foundation Walls,
Basement 3.1 FOUNDATION SYSTEMS (Deep and Shallow Foundation)
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete The foundation system transfers

Columns the lateral loads on the
superstructure to the ground. The
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems horizontal component of these
lateral forces is transferred largely
Roof Decks
through a combination of soil
Walls & Structural friction on the bottom of footings
Walls and the development of passive
soil pressure on the sides of
Pre-Stress Concrete
footings and foundation walls.
Pre-Cast Concrete Foundation systems are classified
Floor Systems
into two broad categories ---
Building Protection shallow foundations and deep
Systems foundations.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 3.1.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Foundations Systems 3.1 Shallow or spread foundations are employed when stable soil of
adequate bearing capacity occurs relatively near the ground surface. They
Foundation Walls,
Basement are placed directly below the lowest part of a superstructure and transfer
Construction, Cisterns building loads directly to the supporting soil by vertical pressure. The
types of shallow or spread footings are:
Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete 1. Individual or isolated footings – are spread footings supporting free-
Floor Systems standing columns and piers.
Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

a. Block or square footings c. Slope or pyramidal footings
Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems

b. Stepped footings
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 2. Strip footings – are the continuous spread footings of foundation walls.
Foundations Systems 3.1
Stepped footings are strip footings that change levels to accommodate a
sloping grade and maintain the required depth at all points around a building.
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns
STRIP FOOTINGS

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks STEPPED FOOTINGS

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete 3. Combined footings.

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems a. Combined footings. supporting two or more columns. This type of
footing is used where it is not possible to center the footing beneath its
Building Protection supported column as in the case of columns located at or very near the
Systems
property line. In such case, the nearest interior column is selected and
a combined footing constructed under both columns.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 The footing is so designed so that the
Construction center of gravity of the combined
Foundations Systems 3.1 loads passes through the center of
gravity of the footing area. Combined
Foundation Walls, column footings are usually
Basement
Construction, Cisterns rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks
b. Cantilevered footings. This type
Walls & Structural
Walls of footing may be used in place of a
combined footing under the same
Pre-Stress Concrete conditions. In this type of construction,
Pre-Cast Concrete the footings of the exterior and interior
Floor Systems columns are connected by a tie-beam
or strap which is so extended to
Building Protection
Systems support the exterior column. The top
of the beam or strap is usually placed
level with the top of the footings.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction c. Continuous footings.

Foundations Systems 3.1 These may be:

Foundation Walls, 1. supporting a line of columns
Basement 2. supporting all of the columns by L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4

Construction, Cisterns strips at right angles to each

Reinforced Concrete other. L/5 L/5

Columns
They may be inverted slab or
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems inverted tee continuous
footings.
Roof Decks 4. Mat or Raft Foundations
Walls & Structural
Walls Mat foundations, like continuous footings are used on soil of low bearing
power where there is a tendency towards unequal settlement due to unequal
Pre-Stress Concrete
loading of soil. In this type of foundation all parts of the foundation are so tied
Pre-Cast Concrete together so that they will act as one and assist each other in keeping level
Floor Systems and plumb.
Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction Mat foundations may be divided into the following general classes:

Foundations Systems 3.1

1. Flat slabs of plain or reinforced
Foundation Walls, 2. Beams or girders with a slab
concrete
Basement underneath
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls
3. Beams or girders with a slab on top
Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 4. STEEL GRILLAGE FOUNDATION
Foundations Systems 3.1
When it is desired to avoid the deep excavation required for concrete and
Foundation Walls, masonry footings, and when the load has to be distributed over a wide
Basement area of support, steel rails or beams are used to give the required moment
Construction, Cisterns
of resistance with a minimum of depth.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns For steel-grillage foundations the foundation
bed should first be covered with a layer of
Reinforced Concrete concrete not less than 6” in thickness and so
Floor Systems
mixed and compacted as to be nearly
Roof Decks impervious to moisture as possible. The
beams are placed on this layer, the upper
Walls & Structural
Walls surface brought to a line and the lower
flanges carefully grouted so as to secure an
Pre-Stress Concrete even bearing. Subsequently, concrete should
Pre-Cast Concrete be placed between and around the beams so
Floor Systems as to permanently protect them. The beam
must not be spaced so near as to prevent the
Building Protection
Systems placing of concrete between them. The clear
space between the flanges of the top layer of
beams should not be less than 2” and should
be somewhat more for the lower layers.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 3.1.2 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Foundations Systems 3.1
Deep foundations are employed when the soil underlying a shallow
Foundation Walls, foundation is unstable or of inadequate soil bearing capacity. They extend
Basement down through unsuitable soil to transfer building loads to a more
Construction, Cisterns
appropriate bearing stratum of rock or dense sand and gravel well below
Reinforced Concrete the superstructure. The types of deep foundations are pile and caisson
Columns foundations.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems 1. PILE FOUNDATIONS
– A pile foundation is a
Roof Decks
system of end bearing or
Walls & Structural friction piles, pile caps, COLUMN LOAD
Walls and tie beams for
Pre-Stress Concrete transferring building loads
LOAD BEARING WALL
down to a suitable bearing REINFORCED
Pre-Cast Concrete stratum. CONCRETE GRADE or
Floor Systems TIE BEAM

Building Protection
Systems
REINFORCED CONCRETE
PILE CAP

Pile Cap – 1. A slab or connecting beam which covers the heads of a group of piles, tying them together so that the structural
load is distributed and they act as a single unit. 2. A metal cap which is placed, as temporary protection, over the head of
a precast pile while it is being driven into the ground.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction End bearing piles – depend principally on the bearing resistance of soil
or rock beneath their feet for support. The surrounding soil mass provides
Foundations Systems 3.1
a degree of lateral stability for the long compression member.
Foundation Walls,
Basement Friction piles – depend principally on the frictional resistance of a
Construction, Cisterns
surrounding earth mass for support. The skin friction developed between
Reinforced Concrete the sides of a pile and the soil into which the pile is driven is limited by the
Columns adhesion of soil to the pile sides and the shear strength of the surrounding
Reinforced Concrete soil mass.
Floor Systems
PILE CAPS
Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete
END BEARING
PILES
Pre-Cast Concrete
FRICTION PILES
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems SAMPLE OF PILE CAPS
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction A. WOOD PILES
Foundations Systems 3.1

Foundation Walls, Wood-pile Foundations. When it is

Basement required to build upon a compressible
Construction, Cisterns
soil saturated with water and of
Reinforced Concrete considerable depth, the most
Columns practicable method of obtaining a
Reinforced Concrete solid and enduring foundation for
Floor Systems buildings of moderate height is by
driving wooden piles. Wooden piles
Roof Decks
are made from the trunks of trees and
Walls & Structural should be as straight as possible, and
Walls not less than 5” in diameter at small
Pre-Stress Concrete end for light buildings, or 8” for heavy
buildings.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems The piles are driven by means of a drop-hammer or with a steam-
Building Protection hammer, a succession of blows being given with a block of cast iron or
Systems steel called the hammer, which slides up and down; the uprights of the
machine is placed over the pile-driver. The machine is placed over the
pile so that the hammer descends fairly on its head, the piles being driven
with the small end down.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction In driving wooden piles with
a drop-hammer, the hammer
Foundations Systems 3.1
is generally raised by steam-
Foundation Walls, power and is dropped either
Basement automatically or by hand.
Construction, Cisterns
The weight of the hammers
Reinforced Concrete used for driving piles for
Columns building foundations is
Reinforced Concrete usually from 1,500 to 2,500
Floor Systems lb., and fall varies from 5 to
20 ft., the last blows being
Roof Decks
given with a short fall. Steam
Walls & Structural hammers are to a
Walls considerable extent taking
Pre-Stress Concrete the place of the ordinary
drop-hammers as they will
Pre-Cast Concrete drive more piles in a day,
Floor Systems
and with less damage to the
Building Protection piles.
Systems
The steam-hammer delivers quick, short blows, from 60 to 70 to the minute,
and seems to jar the piles down, the short interval between the blows not
giving time for the soil to settle around them.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction In driving piles care should be taken to
keep them plumb, and when the
Foundations Systems 3.1
penetration becomes small, the fall
Foundation Walls, should be reduced to about 5 ft., the
Basement blows being given by rapid
Construction, Cisterns
succession. Whenever a pile refuses
Reinforced Concrete to sink under several blows before
Columns reaching the average depth, it should
Reinforced Concrete
be cut off and another pile driven
Floor Systems beside it.
Roof Decks When several piles have been driven to a depth of 20 ft. or more or
refuse to sink more than ½ in. under 5 blows of a 1200 lb. hammer falling
Walls & Structural
Walls 15 ft., it is useless to try them further, as the additional blows result only
in brooming and crushing the heads and points of the piles, and splitting
Pre-Stress Concrete
and crushing the intermediate portions to an unknown extent.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
When the penetration is less than 6 in. at each blow the top of the pile
Building Protection should be protected from brooming by putting on an iron pile ring, about 1
Systems in. less in diameter than the head of the pile, and from 2-1/2 to 3 in. wide by
5/8 in. thick. The head should be chamfered to fit the ring.

Pile Ring – also called a drive band; a steel band which encircles the head of a timber pile to prevent it from splitting when being
driven.
 Heavy Reinforced In driving in soft and silty soils, the piles drive better with a square point. When
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
driven into compact soil, such as sand, gravel, or stiff clay, the point of the
Construction pile should be shod with iron or steel. This is usually in the form of a cast
conical point about 5 in. in dia., secured by a long dowel with a ring
Foundations Systems 3.1
around the end of the pile.
Foundation Walls,
Basement Piles that are driven in or exposed to salt water should be thoroughly
Construction, Cisterns
impregnated with creosote, dead oil or coal-tar, or some mineral poison to
Reinforced Concrete protect them from teredo or shipworm which will completely honeycomb
Columns an ordinary pile in three or four years.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems Piles should not be spaced less than 2 ft. on centers; usual spacing is from 2 to
3 ft. When long piles are driven closer than 2 ft. on centers, there is
Roof Decks
danger that they may force each other up from their solid bed on bearing
Walls & Structural stratum. Driving the piles close together also breaks up the ground and
Walls diminishes the bearing power. Maximum allowable load on wood piles is
Pre-Stress Concrete
usually 20 tons.

Pre-Cast Concrete The top of the piles should be cut off at or below the low water mark, otherwise
Floor Systems
they will soon commence to decay. They should then be capped, either
Building Protection with concrete, or with timber or steel grillage. The usual practice is to use
Systems the reinforced-concrete cap, the method being to excavate 6 to 12” below
the tops and one foot outside of the piles. Concrete is then placed around
and above the piles. Approximately 3” above the top of the piles a layer or
reinforcement running in both directions is placed. Caps are usually 18” or
more in thickness.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction Heavy timber grillages may also be used for capping. These are bolted to
Foundations Systems 3.1
the top of the piles and the concrete footings laid on top of it. The
timbers for the grillages should be at least 10” x 10” in cross-section,
Foundation Walls, and should have sufficient transverse strength to sustain the load
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
from center to center of piles. They should be laid longitudinally on
top of the piles and fastened to them by means of driftbolts. The
Reinforced Concrete advantages of timber grillage are that it can be easily laid and
Columns
effectually holds the top of piles in place. It also tends to distribute the
Reinforced Concrete pressure evenly over the piles, as the transverse strength of the
Floor Systems timber will help to carry the load over a single pile, which for some
Roof Decks
reason, may not have the same bearing capacity as the others.

Walls & Structural Where timber grillage is used, it should be kept entirely below the lowest
Walls
recorded water line, as otherwise it will rot and allow the building to
Pre-Stress Concrete settle.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Steel beams embedded in concrete are also sometimes used to distribute
the weight over piles, but this is too expensive a method to be
Building Protection commonly used.
Systems

Driftbolt – a short rod or square bar driven into holes bored in timber, for attaching adjacent sticks to each other or to piles; varies
from 1 to 2 ft (300 x 600 mm) in length; often provided with a head or with a sharpened end; also called a drift or driftpin.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
B. CONCRETE PILES
Construction

Foundations Systems 3.1

Concrete Piles. Concrete piles, either plain or reinforced, possess many
Foundation Walls, advantages over wooden piles and, in general, can be used in all places
Basement where wooden piles can be driven. Concrete piles are generally used
Construction, Cisterns
where wooden piles would be subject to decay or deterioration by the
Reinforced Concrete action of marine worms. They are especially advantageous for
Columns foundations on land where the permanent ground water is at a
Reinforced Concrete considerable depth. Wooden piles must cut of under water as, when
Floor Systems subjected to an atmosphere which is alternately wet and dry, they will
decay. This is unnecessary with concrete piles, and foundations under
Roof Decks
such conditions need not start so low as would be the case if timber
Walls & Structural piles were used.
Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete In practice concrete piles are generally reinforced. Reinforced-concrete piles
are of two general types: those molded in place and those molded
Pre-Cast Concrete before driving. Spacing for concrete piles usually from 2’ – 6” to 4’.
Floor Systems
Concrete piles are extended at least 4” into the concrete of the footing,
Building Protection and where a steel casing surrounds the pile, 3 to 4 in. of concrete is
Systems required between the top of the piles and the footing reinforcement,
unless the casing is trimmed back at a distance, in which case the case
reinforcement is allowed to lie directly upon the butts of the piles.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 1. PRE-CAST PILES
Construction

Foundations Systems 3.1 Pre-cast Piles These are usually moulded

in a yard or at the site allowed to cure for 4
Foundation Walls,
Basement
weeks before using. In driving, a pre-cast
Construction, Cisterns pile is provided with a cast-iron point, and a
driving head is used in which a cushion of
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
sand, rope or other material is placed
between a driving block of wood and the
Reinforced Concrete concrete in order to prevent the crushing of
Floor Systems
the pile. Concrete piles are often sunk by
Roof Decks means of water-jet. This method is made
possibly by inserting an iron pipe in the
Walls & Structural
Walls
center of the pile.

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 2. CAST-IN-PLACE PILES

Foundations Systems 3.1

Cast-in-place Piles Cast in place piles are constructed in the ground in
Foundation Walls, the position they are to occupy, and are often reinforced. Practically all
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
cast in place piles are covered by patents.

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete Cast-in-place piles may be formed by any of the following methods:
Floor Systems
a. A hollow cylindrical steel tube usually furnished with a tight-fitting
Building Protection
Systems
collapsible steel core or mandrel, is driven into the soil. The core is then
collapsed and removed, and the steel shell filled with concrete. Thus
there is a shell or form for every pile, e.g. McArthur piles, Raymond piles
(this uses a No. 24 gauge shell in which a spiral of No. 3 wire is
encased). This is also commonly called a cased pile.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction A steel tube is fitted at the bottom with a driving point and is driven into the
ground to the required depth. Concrete is then poured into the hole thus
Foundations Systems 3.1
formed as the steel tube is gradually withdrawn. The driving point may be
Foundation Walls, either a conical cast-iron point that is left in place or a hinged cutting-edge
Basement called an alligator point which opens as the tube is withdrawn, e.g.
Construction, Cisterns
Simplex piles. This is called an uncased pile.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection A steel pipe or shell is first driven into the ground. The steel driving core is
Systems then removed and the bottom of the shell is filled with concrete to a height of
about 5 ft. from the bottom. Pressure is then applied to force out the concrete
into the surrounding soil as the core is withdrawn. These are known as
pedestal piles.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 C. STEEL PILES
Construction

Foundations Systems 3.1 Steel-pipe Piles. These are concrete-filled

steel pipes which are made to bear on
Foundation Walls, rock or hard pan. The pipes are generally
Basement
Construction, Cisterns 10 to 18 inches in diameter, having a
thickness of 3/8 to 5/8 inches. The pipe is
Reinforced Concrete driven in sections with a steam-hammer
Columns
and, as additional sections are required,
Reinforced Concrete these are attached to the driven section by
Floor Systems means of a cast-iron or steel internal
Roof Decks sleeve and re-driven.

Walls & Structural When the pipe has reached its bearing level it is cleaned out by blowing or
Walls dug out by means of augers or similar tools. The pipe is then pumped out
and concreted.
Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 D. COMPOSITE PILES
Construction

Foundations Systems 3.1 Composite Piles.

Foundation Walls, These are combination
Basement
Construction, Cisterns timber and concrete or
steel and concrete piles.
Reinforced Concrete They may be composed
Columns
of timber piles with
Reinforced Concrete concrete coatings held
Floor Systems in position by steel
Roof Decks reinforcements in the
shape of expanded
Walls & Structural metal or wire netting.
Walls
The latter are to be
Pre-Stress Concrete considered as timber,
rather than concrete,
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems piles.

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
2. CAISSON FOUNDATIONS
Foundations Systems 3.1 Caissons are cast-in-place, plain or reinforced concrete piers formed by
Foundation Walls, boring with a large auger or excavating by hand a shaft in the earth to a
Basement suitable bearing stratum and filling the shaft with concrete. For this reason
Construction, Cisterns they are also referred to as drilled piles or piers.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 3.2 FOUNDATION WALLS, BASEMENT
Foundations Systems
CONSTRUCTION, CISTERNS
Foundation Walls, Foundation walls
Basement 3.2
Construction, Cisterns provide support for the
Reinforced Concrete superstructure above
Columns and enclose a
basement wall or crawl
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems space partly or wholly
below grade. In
Roof Decks addition to the vertical
Walls & Structural loads from the
Walls superstructure,
foundation walls must
Pre-Stress Concrete
be designed and
Pre-Cast Concrete constructed to resist
Floor Systems active earth pressure
Building Protection and anchor the
Systems superstructure against
wind and seismic
forces.
FOUNDATION WALLS
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement 3.2
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems

BASEMENT WALLS
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement 3.2
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems

SECTION OF CISTERN
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS
Construction
There may be short columns or long columns.
Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls, Short columns – occur when the unsupported height is not
Basement greater than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the
Construction, Cisterns
cross section.
Reinforced Concrete Long columns – occur when the unsupported height is more
3.3
Columns than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the cross
Reinforced Concrete section.
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.3.1 TYPES OF RC COLUMNS

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced-concrete columns may be classified into five types:
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
1. Tied Columns. These are columns with longitudinal bars and lateral
Building Protection ties. The ratio of the effective cross-sectional area of vertical
Systems reinforcement to the gross column area should not be less than 1% nor
more than 8%, and should consist of at least 4 bars of a minimum size
of #5.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction Lateral tiles shall be at least 3/8” (10 mm) diameter and shall be spaced
apart not over than 16 bar diameters, 48 tie diameters, or the least
Foundations Systems
dimension of the column. Where there are more than four vertical bars,
Foundation Walls, additional ties should be provided so that every longitudinal bar will be
Basement firmly held in its designed position. The reinforcement for tied columns
Construction, Cisterns
shall be protected by a covering of concrete, cast monolithically with the
Reinforced Concrete core, of at least 1-1/2” (38 mm) thickness.
3.3
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 2. Spiral Columns. These are columns with longitudinal bars and closely
Construction spaced continuous spiral hooping. For spiral columns, the ratio of the
Foundations Systems area of the vertical reinforcement to the gross column area shall not
less than 1% nor more than 8%. The minimum number of bars shall 6,
Foundation Walls, and the minimum bar size shall #5.
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns
3.3 The spiral reinforcement, with min
size of 3/8” shall consist of evenly
Reinforced Concrete
spaced continuous spirals held
Floor Systems
firmly in place by at least three
Roof Decks vertical spacer bars. The center to
center spacing of the spirals shall
Walls & Structural
Walls not exceed 3” (75 mm) nor be
less than 1-3/8” (35 mm) or 1-1/2
Pre-Stress Concrete
times the maximum size of the
Pre-Cast Concrete coarse aggregate. Protective
Floor Systems covering for the column
reinforcement shall not be less
Building Protection
Systems than 1-1/2” (38 mm).
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3. Composite Columns – where structural steel columns are embedded
Construction
into the concrete core of a spiral column.
Foundations Systems 4. Combined Columns – where structural steel is encased in concrete of
at least 7 cm thick, reinforced with wire mess surrounding the column
Foundation Walls,
Basement at a distance of 3 cm inside the outer face of the concrete cover.
Construction, Cisterns 5. Lally Columns – are fabricated steel pipes provided with flat steel
plates which holds a girder or girt, and is filled with grout or concrete
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
3.3 to prevent corrosion.

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems 3.3.2 DOWEL BARS
Roof Decks
Dowel bars are short bars used to
Walls & Structural transfer the stress at the bottom of
Walls the columns to the footings. When
Pre-Stress Concrete dowel bars are used, there should
be at least one dowel bar for each
Pre-Cast Concrete column bar. The total cross-
Floor Systems
sectional area of dowels should not
Building Protection be less than the cross-sectional
Systems area of longitudinal reinforcement
in the column.
The dowels shall extend into the column and into the pedestal or footing not
less than 50 bars diameter for plain bars or 40 diameters for deformed bars.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 3.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS
Foundations Systems
3.4.1 SUSPENDED SLABS
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns In general, there are six types of reinforced-concrete floors systems:

Reinforced Concrete
1. One way solid slab and beam
Columns
2. One way joist slab or Ribbed slab
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
3. Two way solid slab and beam
Floor Systems
4. Two way waffle slab
Roof Decks 5. Two way flat plate
6. Two way flat slab
Walls & Structural
Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete Each particular system has its distinct advantages, depending upon the
spacing, of columns, the magnitude of the loads to be supported, lengths
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
of spans, and the cost of construction. Although the arrangement of the
plan of a building frequently determines the column spacing,
Building Protection approximately square bays are desirable. Column spacing of 20 ft., more
Systems
or less, has proved to be most economical, but this, of course, depends
on the type of floor construction to be used.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 1. ONE-WAY SLABS
Construction

Foundations Systems Probably the most commonly used type or reinforced concrete
construction consists of a solid slab supported by two parallel beams,
Foundation Walls,
Basement
the beams framing into girders, and the girders in turn framing into
Construction, Cisterns columns. The reinforcement slabs runs in one direction only, from
beam to beam, hence the slab is known as one-way slab. The number
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
of beams in a panel depends upon the column spacing and the live
load to be supported. The beams are spaced uniformly and generally
Reinforced Concrete
3.4 frame into the girders at the center, third or quarter points.
Floor Systems

Roof Decks This type of framing is called the beam-and-girder floor. It is readily
constructed and the formwork is simple. The one-way slab is
Walls & Structural
Walls
economical for medium and heavy live loads for comparatively short
spans, 6 to 12 ft. For light live loads, 40 to 60 psf, the spans may be
Pre-Stress Concrete increased, but long spans for one-way slabs results in comparatively
Pre-Cast Concrete
large dead loads.
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction The main tensile reinforcement (running along the short direction) in fully
continuous slabs are alternately bent up, usually at an angle of 30 to
Foundations Systems
45 degrees, at the fifth points of the span and extend over the supports
Foundation Walls, to the quarter points of the adjoining span. The remaining bars are
Basement straight, placed in the bottom of the slab. For single span slabs the
Construction, Cisterns
bars are bent up at the quarter points.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns Another method of placing the reinforcement is to place straight bars at the
Reinforced Concrete bottom of the slab and the other straight bars at the top of the slab over
3.4
Floor Systems the supports. If the bent bars are used, bent bars from the adjoining
bars are extended over the supports, thus providing the same amount
Roof Decks
of reinforcement over the supports as at mid-span.
Walls & Structural
Walls In addition to the tensile reinforcement, temperature bars are also provided
Pre-Stress Concrete running along the long direction. These serve to provide against the
effect of shrinkage and changes in temperature and also to distribute
Pre-Cast Concrete possible load concentrations over larger areas. The size and spacing
Floor Systems
of temperature bars depends upon the slab thickness.
Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 Minimum protective covering for slab reinforcement is 20mm (¾”).
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 2. ONE WAY JOIST OR RIBBED SLABS
Foundations Systems
For medium span lengths with light or
Foundation Walls, medium live loads, ribbed slabs have
Basement
Construction, Cisterns proved to have an economical type of
floor construction. They are not so
Reinforced Concrete well suited to heavy concentrated
Columns
loads as the solid one or two-way
Reinforced Concrete slabs. A one-way joist slab consists
3.4
Floor Systems of relatively small adjacent T-beams.
Roof Decks When the open spaces between the
webs or rings are filled with clay tile,
Walls & Structural gypsum tile, concrete filler block or
Walls
steel forms, the floor system is called
Pre-Stress Concrete a ribbed slab.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 Clay tile fillers are generally 12” x 12” in plan with depths of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
Construction
and 15 in. The usual practice is to place the tiles 16” o.c., thus
Foundations Systems making the web 4” wide. The layer of concrete placed on top of the
tile is generally 2 or 2-1/2 in. thick. Reinforcement for this type of
Foundation Walls,
Basement construction may consist of two bars placed in the lower part of the
Construction, Cisterns web, one bent and one straight, or of straight bars placed in the top
and bottom parts of the web.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 Metal tile fillers are frequently used for ribbed floors. This is commonly
Construction
known as tin-pan construction. The metal forms are usually 36” long,
Foundations Systems with 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 in. depths. They are placed on centers in
such a manner as to make the web 4 to 7 in. wide at the lowest point.
Foundation Walls,
Basement Form widths are generally 20 or 30 in.; a common condition is a form
Construction, Cisterns 20 in. wide, placed 25 in. on centers, to make a web 5” wide at the
bottom.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
The metal forms may be removed or left in place after supporting
Reinforced Concrete formwork has been taken down. To provide a greater web area near
3.4
Floor Systems
the supports, where the shearing stresses may exceed the allowable,
Roof Decks special metal cores with the sides tapered in plan are used. The
degree of tapering generally is such that the web is increased 4” in
Walls & Structural
Walls width. As in the case of clay-tile fillers, a 2, 2-1/2, or 3 in. slab is
placed over the metal tile forms, the slab and web forming a T-
Pre-Stress Concrete section.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems Gypsum-tile fillers have the advantage of providing a relatively lightweight
ribbed with a flush ceiling. Although they are made in various sizes, a
Building Protection
Systems common width is 19”, placed 24” o.c., with webs 5” wide. When block
12” wide are used, they are placed 16” o.c., thus forming 4” – wide
webs.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 3. TWO-WAY SLABS
Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls, When a floor panel is square or nearly so, having beams or walls on four
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
sides, it is generally economical to use two sets of reinforcing bars
placed at right angles to each other. These bars in two directions
Reinforced Concrete transfer the loads to the four supporting beams or walls. Slabs thus
Columns
reinforced are known as two way slabs or slabs supported on four
Reinforced Concrete sides.
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks
For square panels, with supports of equal rigidity, the live and dead loads
are distributed equally in both directions and the reinforcements are
Walls & Structural the same each way. When the panel is oblong or rectangular, the
Walls
greater part of the load is transmitted by the transverse or short
Pre-Stress Concrete reinforcement. If the length of the slab exceeds 1.5 times its width,
the entire load is usually assumed to be carried by the short
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
reinforcement, and the long reinforcement used for shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement only; hence the slab would become a
Building Protection one-way slab.
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction In determining the reinforcement of two-way slabs two strips of floor are
considered. One is middle strip, one half of the panel in width,
Foundations Systems
symmetrical about the panel center line, and extending through the
Foundation Walls, length of the panel. The other is the column strip, one half of the
Basement panel in width and occupying the two quarter-panel areas outside the
Construction, Cisterns
middle strip. In placing the reinforcement it is advantageous to place
Reinforced Concrete the bars in the short direction, carrying the greater load, under the
Columns longer bars. Bars are bent up at fifth points and extend over the
Reinforced Concrete supports of the quarter points of the adjoining slabs as is done for
3.4
Floor Systems one-way slabs.
Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 4. TWO WAY WAFFLE SLAB
Foundations Systems
A waffle slab is a two way concrete slab reinforced by ribs in two
Foundation Walls, directions. Waffle slabs are able to carry heavier loads and span longer
Basement
Construction, Cisterns distances than flat slabs.

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 5. TWO WAY FLAT PLATE.
Foundations Systems
A flat plate is a concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in two or
Foundation Walls, more directions and supported directly by columns without beams or
Basement
Construction, Cisterns girders. Simplicity of forming, lower floor-to-floor heights, and some
flexibility in column placement make flat plates practical for apartment and
Reinforced Concrete hotel construction.
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 6. TWO WAY FLAT SLABS.
Construction

Foundations Systems A flat-slab is a flat plate thickened at its column supports to increase its
Foundation Walls, shear strength and moment-resisting capacity. The slab is commonly
Basement reinforced with bars running in two directions. This area of increased
Construction, Cisterns thickness is called a drop panel or drop. The columns are generally square
Reinforced Concrete in cross section, but rectangular or circular cross sections are also used.
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed Flat-slab floors are economical in use of material and provide a rigid type of
Concrete & Steel 3.0 construction. These floors are particularly suitable for industrial buildings
Construction
having large live loads and for buildings in which the columns capitals are
Foundations Systems not objectionable. Among the advantages claimed for flat-slab floor are
the simplified formwork, better lighting due to the absence of beams and
Foundation Walls, girders, a saving in height for given clear story heights, a uniform surface
Basement
for suspending sprinkler systems, piping and shafting, and, because of
Construction, Cisterns
the absence of sharp corners, better resistance to fire.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns The ratio of length to width of flat-slab panels should not exceed 1.33:1.
Thickness of slab without drop panels or through drop panel, if any, shall
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.4 not be less than L/36; thickness of slab with drop panels at points beyond
the drop panel should not be less than L/40. The side of diameter of the
Roof Decks drop panel shall be at least 0.33 times the span in the parallel direction.
The diameter of the column capital measured at the bottom of the slab or
Walls & Structural
Walls drop panel (in feet) is generally taken between 0.20 and 0.25 L.

Pre-Stress Concrete
There are several methods of reinforcing flat-slabs and flat plates:
Pre-Cast Concrete 1. Two-way system. This system is the most commonly used and consists of two
Floor Systems sets of bars extending directly from column to column in both directions. Slabs are
square or rectangular.
Building Protection 2. Three-way system. The reinforcement extends from column to column, the
Systems columns being placed at the corners of equilateral triangles; hence slabs are
triangular in shape.
3. Four-way system. The reinforcement extends both directly and diagonally
between columns in both directions. The slabs are square or rectangular.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
3.4.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
Foundations Systems
A beam may be defined as a structural member, resting on supports
Foundation Walls,
Basement
usually at its ends, which supports transverse loads. The loads that act on
Construction, Cisterns the beam, as well as the weight of the beam itself, tend to bend rather
than lengthen or shorten it. A girder is a term applied to a beam that
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
supports one or more smaller beams, as concentrated loads.

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 Beams may be classified as:
Construction

Foundations Systems
a. Simple beams. These are beams having a single span with a support
at each end, there being no restraint at the supports.
Foundation Walls, b. Cantilever beams. These are beams that are supported at one end
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
only, or they may be that portion of beams projecting beyond one of its
supports.
Reinforced Concrete c. Continuous beams. These are beams resting on more than two
Columns
supports. The term “semi-continuous” is also frequently used in
Reinforced Concrete reinforced-concrete. It refers to a beam having two spans with little or no
3.4
Floor Systems restraint at the two extreme ends of the beam. The end span of a
Roof Decks
continuous beam, where little or restraint is provided at the end support,
is referred to as a semi-continuous beam.
Walls & Structural
Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete When a beam is subjected to a given load, the beam is bent downwards at
the middle, the lower part of the beam being elongated while the upper
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems part is compressed. The lower part of the beam is said to be in tension,
while the upper part is in compression. In reinforced-concrete design, it is
Building Protection assumed that the compressive stresses is resisted by the concrete and
Systems
all tension resisted by the steel. Thus the reinforcement of a beam is
placed near the bottom of the section.
 Heavy Reinforced At the supports, however, the upper surface of the beam becomes concave
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 downward; that is there is a reversal of stresses. The upper portion of the
Construction beam is now in tension ( or the bending moment is said to change from
positive to negative). The section of a beam at which the bending moment
Foundations Systems
changes from positive to negative is called the point of inflection. The
Foundation Walls, exact position of inflection points depends upon the position and
Basement magnitudes of the loads as well as the end conditions of the beams. For
Construction, Cisterns
continuous beams having equal spans and uniformly distributed loads, the
Reinforced Concrete inflection point is considered to be one-fifth the clear span between faces
Columns of support.
Reinforced Concrete At this point some of the reinforcing bars are bent up at an angle of from 30 to
3.4
Floor Systems 45 degrees and extend over the supports into the adjacent spans. The bent
up bars serve to resist the tensile stresses over the supports. Thus for
Roof Decks
continuous beams with uniformly distributed loads the bars would be bent
Walls & Structural up at one-fifth the clear span from the face of the supports and extend to
Walls the quarter points of the adjacent span. Not more than half of the bears
Pre-Stress Concrete should be bent up; the rest of the reinforcement extends straight through
the center of the supports.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Another method is to use separate straight bars in both the bottoms and tops
Building Protection of the beams in place of bent bars. The slight cost in excess weight in this
Systems arrangement over the combination of straight and bent bars is probably
balanced by the ease of preparing design and shop drawings, bill of
materials, and fabrication and placing of reinforcement. Bars not fabricated
according to drawings, or those lost and mislaid, are more easily replaced if
no bending is involved.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
In addition to the tensile and compressive stresses in a beam subjected to
Foundations Systems
bending, there are also inclined tensile stresses. If a concrete beam is
Foundation Walls, reinforced with longitudinal steel only, these diagonal stresses tend o
Basement produce cracks which are vertical at the center of the span and become
Construction, Cisterns
more inclined as they approach the support where they slope towards the
Reinforced Concrete center at an angle of about 45. The stresses that cause these cracks are
Columns known as diagonal tension. To prevent failure due to diagonal tension
Reinforced Concrete
additional reinforcing bars are used.
3.4
Floor Systems
Sloping bars placed at right angles to the direction of these cracks would be
Roof Decks one method of reinforcing for diagonal tension, but, although this is
sometimes done, it is not the most economical method. The usual
Walls & Structural
Walls
procedure is to add #3 or #4 bars, bent in the shape of the letter U, in
vertical positions at those places in the beam at which the diagonal
Pre-Stress Concrete tension stresses require their use. When the stresses are sufficiently
Pre-Cast Concrete
large. W-shaped bars are used. These bent reinforcing bars are called
Floor Systems stirrups. They should always have hooks at the ends to provide
anchorage to resist the tensile stresses.
Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems
Reinforcement used to resist shearing stresses is known as web
Foundation Walls, reinforcement. Ties are frequently used for web reinforcement in place of
Basement stirrups. A tie is generally made of #3 bars, but it completely encircles the
Construction, Cisterns
longitudinal tensile steel instead of being U-shaped with hooks.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Although it is occasionally necessary to put in two or more layers of steel,
Reinforced Concrete
3.4 particularly in large girders carrying heavy loads, it is usually more
Floor Systems
economical to slightly widen a beam, thereby permitting all of the main
Roof Decks tensile reinforcement to lie in the same plane. Minimum clear distance
between bars should not be less than the nominal diameters of the bars,
Walls & Structural
Walls
not less than 1” (25 mm), nor less than 1-1/3 times the maximum size of
the coarse aggregate. If more than one layer is used the clear vertical
Pre-Stress Concrete distance between layers shall not be less than 1” (25 mm), and the bars in
Pre-Cast Concrete
the upper layer shall be placed directly above those in the bottom layer.
Floor Systems
The following table is useful in selecting the proper width of beam given
Building Protection
Systems
number of reinforcing bars:
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
NUMBER OF BARS IN BEAMS
Foundations Systems
Maximum number of bars for beams of various widths
Width 6” 8” 10” 12”
Foundation Walls,
14”
Basement
2- #5 2 - #11 2 - #11 3 - #11 4- #11
Construction, Cisterns
3 - #6 3 - #9 4 - #9
5 - #9
Reinforced Concrete
4 - #6 5 - #6
Columns
6 - #7
6 - #4
Reinforced Concrete
3.4 7 - #4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural An allowance of 1-1/2” (38 mm) for fireproofing is made outside the
Walls reinforcement on each side of the beam, and there is also allowance for
Pre-Stress Concrete #3 stirrups. It should be noted that this Table gives the maximum size
of bars. Thus, for instance, the Table indicates that 4 - #9 bars may be
Pre-Cast Concrete used in a beam 12” in width. Obviously, four smaller bars, e.g., 4-#7,
Floor Systems
may also be used for the same beam width.
Building Protection
Systems Fireproofing for beams and walls is 1-1/2” (40 mm).
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.4.3 TYPES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 1. Rectangular beams
Construction
2. T – beams. When a reinforced
Foundations Systems
concrete floor slab and its supporting
Foundation Walls, beam (or girder) are built at the same
Basement time and thoroughly tied together, a
Construction, Cisterns
part of the slab may be considered to
Reinforced Concrete act with upper part of the beam in
Columns compression. This form of a beam is
Reinforced Concrete called a T- beam.
3.4
Floor Systems
3. Beam with Compression
Roof Decks
Reinforcement. These are beams with
Walls & Structural reinforcement in the compression as
Walls well as the tension side of the beam,
Pre-Stress Concrete hence they are also called double
reinforced beams. In this type of beam
Pre-Cast Concrete no bent up bars are required. Beams
Floor Systems
with compression reinforcement are
Building Protection used when the cross-sectional
Systems dimensions of the beam are limited by
architectural or structural conditions so
that there is an insufficient concrete
area for the compressive stresses.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 4. Cantilever Beams. The tensile
Construction reinforcement is located at top of the
Foundations Systems
beam and inverted U-stirrups are
provided.
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks
5. Hollow box girders. These are
Walls & Structural double reinforced beams used for long
Walls
spans. In order to reduce the dead
Pre-Stress Concrete load (the weight of the beam) it is
hollowed in the center of the section.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems Diaphragms are provided at intervals
throughout the length of the beam.
Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 6. Beam Brackets or Corbels. Short beam extensions from columns
Construction
used to support rafters or trusses.
Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.5 ROOF DECKS
Construction

Foundations Systems
Reinforced concrete roof slabs (roof decks) are formed and sitecast in the
Foundation Walls, same manner as concrete floor systems. Roof decks are normally
Basement covered with a type of membrane roofing for insulation and
Construction, Cisterns
waterproofing.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks 3.5

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks 3.5

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
3.6 WALLS AND STRUCTURAL WALLS
Construction
3.6.1 TYPES OF WALLS
Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
1. Bearing wall. A wall on which either floor or roof construction
rests.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
2. Curtain wall. The enclosing wall of an iron or steel framework
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
or the non-bearing portion of an enclosing wall between piers.
Roof Decks
3. Foundation wall. That portion of an enclosing wall below the
Walls & Structural 3.6 first tier of joists.
Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete 4. Retaining wall. A subsurface wall built to resist the lateral
Pre-Cast Concrete
pressure of internal loads.
Floor Systems

Building Protection
5. Spandrel wall. The space between any arch and the beam
Systems over the same; or an exterior non-bearing wall in skeleton
construction built between columns or piers and wholly
supported at each story.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 3.6.2 CURTAIN WALLS
Foundations Systems
1. Panel walls are exterior non-load bearing walls whose outer surface
Foundation Walls, may or may not form the exterior facing of the building and whose
Basement interior surface may or may not form the interior finish. It may rest on
Construction, Cisterns
the building structure or may be hung from the structure.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns Masonry panel walls are exterior non-load bearing walls whose outer
Reinforced Concrete
surface may form exterior building face or it may be used back of
Floor Systems panel curtain wall as back-up.
Roof Decks
The two types of masonry panel walls are: the stone masonry panel
Walls & Structural 3.6 and the pre-cast masonry panel wall units.
Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete a. Stone masonry panels are natural or artificial stone slabs which are
Floor Systems
anchored to the building structure by masonry anchors.
Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 b. Pre-cast masonry panel wall units are ordinary reinforced or pre-
Construction
stressed concrete wall units which may span one floor or several floors.
Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 2. Panel curtain walls are exterior non-load bearing walls made up of
Construction
panels attached directly to the building structure with an adjustable
Foundations Systems attachment or mounted on supports (sub-frame), which in turn, are
attached to the building structure by adjustable attachments. Exterior
Foundation Walls,
Basement
face of panels form the face of the building; interior face may or may
Construction, Cisterns not form the interior finish. The panels which protect the building from
the weather, may be one of the following types:
Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
a. Window type panel. Transparent glass and frame incorporated in
panel curtain wall.
Roof Decks b. Skin type panel. Panel made up of one material.
Walls & Structural 3.6
c. Sandwich type panel. Panel made up of assembly of several
Walls materials.
1. Open Sandwich type. Sandwich panel with top and bottom edges
Pre-Stress Concrete
closed.
Pre-Cast Concrete 2. Closed Sandwich type. Sandwich panel in which all edges of
Floor Systems panel are closed except for weep holes and vents.
Building Protection
d. Wall Units. Preassembly of several panels of any type. Units may be
Systems one or several stories high.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction Panel curtain walls may be classified into the following types:
Foundations Systems
Stick type. Refers to the method of installation where the mullions and
Foundation Walls, horizontal rails (gutter section and window sill section) are installed first
Basement before installation of the window and wall panels.
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction b. Unit and Mullion type. Supports (mullions) are clearly expressed.
Vertical lines dominant. Mullions are generally 4’ – 4” max.; height, 8’ –
Foundations Systems
0” maximum.
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction c. Grid type (or Unit type). Supports (vertical and horizontal
Foundations Systems members) clearly expressed. Vertical and horizontal lines
equally dominant. Area between support members, 32 sq. ft.
Foundation Walls,
Basement maximum. Width of panels, 4’ – 4” max.; height, 8’ – 0” max.
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction d. Panel type (or sheathed type). Supports not expressed. Non-
lineal pattern. Joints vertical and horizontal usually without trim.
Foundations Systems
Individual panel size: max. width, 3’ – 10”; max. height, 8’ – 0”.
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction e. Spandrel type (column cover and spandrel system). Supports are
not a primary element of expression in this type of wall. Horizontal
Foundations Systems lines are dominant and the length of spandrel unlimited. Width of
Foundation Walls, interlocking panels is 4’ – 4” maximum; height is 8’ – 0” maximum.
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems f. Sheathed type (Industrial). Supports not expressed. Non-lineal

pattern. Joints vertical. Panel size: width, approx. 4’; height, 60’ max.
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns Assembly methods of panel curtain walls may be by:
1. Individual panels.
Reinforced Concrete 2. Wall units. Width, 6’ max.; height, one several stories.
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks 3.6.3 PRESSURE EQUALIZED DESIGN FOR CURTAIN WALLS.

Walls & Structural 3.6 Pressure differential between the outside atmosphere and an interior
Walls
environment can cause rainwater to migrate through even the smallest
Pre-Stress Concrete openings in wall joints. Pressure-equalized design can significantly
reduce this cause of water leakage in wall construction by employing the
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems rain-screen principle.

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 3.6

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.6.4 RETAINING WALLS, BREAST WALLS, AND VAULT
Construction
WALLS.
Foundations Systems
A retaining wall is a wall whose purpose is to resist the thrust of a
Foundation Walls,
Basement
bank of earth or other material. It is differentiated from breast walls
Construction, Cisterns which is similar to the retaining wall, in that in the retaining the earth
or other filling is deposited behind it after it is built, while the breast
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
wall (or face wall) is built to prevent the fall of earth which is in its
undisturbed, natural position, but from which part has been
Reinforced Concrete excavated, leaving a vertical or inclined face.
Floor Systems

Roof Decks Retaining walls are of three types:

Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls a. Gravity wall. This is a type of wall which is constructed of such
proportions that its weight alone resists the thrust of the earth. Low walls
Pre-Stress Concrete are invariably gravity walls constructed of brick, stone masonry or
Pre-Cast Concrete concrete.
Floor Systems
b. Cantilever wall. The cantilever wall is constructed of reinforced concrete
Building Protection
Systems and makes use of the weight of the earth in resisting the tendency to
overturn at the outer edge. The vertical wall, supported on a horizontal
base, serves as a cantilever beam in resisting the earth pressure. Walls of
intermediate height are generally of the cantilever type.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement C. Counterfort wall. It is similar to the cantilever wall with the exception
Construction, Cisterns that the vertical wall is tied to the base at regular intervals with triangular-
shaped walls called counterforts ( a counterfort is similar to a buttress, but
Reinforced Concrete
Columns where a buttress is placed on the side of the wall opposite the pressure
acting on it, a counterfort is placed on the same side of the wall ). It is
Reinforced Concrete usually more economical to use the counterfort wall for heights of 20 ft. or
Floor Systems
over.
Roof Decks
In large cities it is customary to utilize the space under the sidewalks for
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls storage or other purposes. This necessitates a wall at the curb line to hold
back the earth and the street pressures and also the weight of the
Pre-Stress Concrete sidewalk. These are called vault walls.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 3.7 PRESTRESS CONCRETE
Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls, The concrete in the conventional reinforced-concrete beam is not used
Basement economically. With respect to bending stresses, only the concrete
Construction, Cisterns above the neutral surface resists compressive stresses. All the
Reinforced Concrete concrete in the tension area, below the neutral axis, is disregarded in
Columns designing because concrete is inherently weak in tension. Therefore,
only about one-third of the concrete resists compressive stresses, the
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems maximum stress being at the top of the beam, with the stresses
decreasing in magnitude to a zero stress at the neutral surface.
Roof Decks

Walls & Structural Since in the usual reinforced-concrete beam the concrete cannot be
Walls used efficiently, certain forces may be applied to beams that result in a
member in which all the concrete resists bending stresses. This is
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7
known as pre-stressed concrete. A pre-stressed concrete beam is a
Pre-Cast Concrete member so designed and constructed that all of the stresses in the
Floor Systems concrete resulting from bending are compressive, none is tensile. The
Building Protection name is derived from the fact that the stresses are applied before the
Systems beam is loaded.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction There are two methods of prestressed concrete, namely:
Foundations Systems
a. Pre-tensioning or bonded prestressing. In this method the
Foundation Walls, reinforcing steel is first prestressed and then the concrete is poured.
Basement When the concrete has developed strength, the stress in the steel is
Construction, Cisterns
released. The steel when stretched out becomes smaller in cross-
Reinforced Concrete section than when unstressed, and the concrete hardens around them
Columns while they are still small. When their artificial tension is released after
Reinforced Concrete
the concrete hardens, they expand, reverting to their original shape,
Floor Systems grip the surrounding concrete. The bond between the concrete and
steel is sufficient to create compression in the concrete.
Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 b. Post-tensioning or unbonded pre-stressing. In this method, tubes,
Construction conduits, or channels are inserted in the concrete where reinforcing
steel is required. After the concrete is adequately cured, steel
Foundations Systems
reinforcement is inserted in the tubes or channels, stretched to the
Foundation Walls, proper tension, and anchored at the ends to put a squeeze on the
Basement beam. Tensioning is done with hydraulic jacks.
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
Systems
The reinforcing for pre-stressed concrete is usually wire, strand, bar or rope
made of heat-treated steel. Concrete must meet strengths usually greater
than AA-type concrete which has a strength of 3750 psi in 28 days.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed The advantages of pre-stressed concrete are:
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
1. It is economical of materials due to the use of higher steel and concrete
Foundations Systems stresses.
Foundation Walls,
Basement 2. It eliminates cracks because the concrete is always in compression.
Construction, Cisterns
3. It has remarkable elastic properties. For example, tests were made on a floor
Reinforced Concrete
Columns slab only 1-5/s8” thick reinforced with not more than 1% steel. Although the
span was only 10 ft. the slab deflected 3” under a load of 1070lb. at its
Reinforced Concrete center. When the load was removed it returned to its original level,
Floor Systems
undamaged.
Roof Decks
4. Beams do not have to be cast at the side in one form, but may be cast in
Walls & Structural
Walls small sections or blocks at the factory with reinforcing wires threaded
through them. When the wires are stressed, the small units are brought
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7 together like one large beam.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems 5. It develops remarkable resistance to shear stresses.
Pre-stressed concrete is used where spans and loads cannot be
Building Protection
Systems adequately designed in reinforced-concrete, and for deckings, beams,
girders and other prefabricated units where greater spans and loads with
thinner, stronger, and in some cases, lighter members are required.
The designing of pre-stressed concrete for structures is highly technical and
the architect should always work with a structural engineer, even when
using prefabricated pre-stressed concrete units.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.8 PRE-CAST CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks Precast concrete slabs, beams and structural tees are one-way spanning
units that may be supported by site cast concrete, precast concrete, or
Walls & Structural masonry bearing walls, or by steel, sitecast concrete, or precast concrete
Walls
frames. The precast units are manufactured with normal-density or
Pre-Stress Concrete structural lightweight concrete and prestressed for greater structural
efficiency, which results in less depth, reduced weight, and longer spans.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems 3.8 The units are cast and steam-cured in a plant off-site, transported to the
Building Protection construction site, and set in place as rigid components with cranes. The
Systems size and proportion of the units may be limited by the means of
transportation. Fabrication in a factory environment enables the unit to
have a consistent quality of strength, durability, and finish, and eliminates
the need for on-site formwork. The modular nature3 of the standard-sized
units may not be suitable for irregular building shapes.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 3.8.1 Types of Precast Concrete Floor Units
Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement 1. Solid Flat Slabs
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete 2. Hollow Core Slabs

Columns

Reinforced Concrete 3. Single Tees

Floor Systems
4. Double Tees
Roof Decks

Walls & Structural 5. Rectangular, L-

Walls Shaped and Inverted
Pre-Stress Concrete Tee Beams

Pre-Cast Concrete 6. AASHTO Girders

Floor Systems 3.8

Building Protection
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
3.9 BUILDING PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Foundations Systems 3.9.1 CATEGORIES OF BUILDING PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Foundation Walls,
Basement 1. Waterproofing – a method of making building surfaces impervious to
Construction, Cisterns water.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns 2. Damp-proofing – applying a water-impervious material or a vapor
barrier to a surface, usually slab-on-fill, to prevent the penetration of
Reinforced Concrete
moisture, from the ground or the exterior or to prevent the penetration
Floor Systems
of condensate to the surface material. Example is BARRAFILM vapor
Roof Decks barrier, one layer at six mils (0.006) thick, with 300 mm overlapping.
Walls & Structural 3. Water repelling or water sealing – applying, by brush or low-
Walls pressure spray, a clear silicon water repellent or sealant to porous
Pre-Stress Concrete surface material such as cement plaster and bricks to prevent
weathering or the growth of algae and moss. Example is
Pre-Cast Concrete THOMPSONS Water Seal.
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
4. Thermal insulation – method of installing thermal barriers in
Systems surfaces of structures to keep the heat or cold away from the interior
spaces.
Vapor Barrier or Vapor Retarder – 1. A membrane covering the outer surface of an insulated cold water pipe that is used to prevent moisture
from penetrating the insulation and reaching the pipe. 2. A layer of material or laminate used to reduce appreciably the flow of water
vapor into a roofing system.
Weathering – 1. Changes in color, texture, strength, chemical composition, or other properties of a natural or artificial material due to the
action of the weather. 2. The cover applied to a part of a structure to enable it to shed rainwater.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 5. Termite (anay) proofing –
Foundations Systems
•Soil poisoning – treating the soil surrounding the structure in touch
Foundation Walls,
Basement with the ground (footing bed and slab on fill) with a chemical. Example
Construction, Cisterns is LENTREK TC Termicide Concentrate; dilution rating: 1 part
Reinforced Concrete
LENTREK TC to 50 parts water.
Columns
•Factory-applied wood preservative – factory pressure-applied
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
wood preservatives; such as boliden salts, WOLMAN preservative or
SOLIGNUM preservative of MATIMCO Wood (Manila Timber
Roof Decks Company).
Walls & Structural
Walls •Site-applied wood preservative – application of a chemical liquid on
the wood surface (Solignum) to protect it against pest intrusion, such
Pre-Stress Concrete
as termites and powder post beetles (bukbok), and decay-causing
Pre-Cast Concrete fungi, such as sap stain and rot.
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
Systems

Powder Post – A condition of wood which has decayed to powder, or has been eaten by worms which leave holes full of powder.
Rot – Decomposition in wood by fungi and other microorganisms; reduces its strength, density and hardness.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 •Termite shields – installing a
Construction
shield of non-corroding metal
Foundations Systems or inorganic material, used as
protection against the
Foundation Walls,
Basement
infiltration of termites in a
Construction, Cisterns building; so placed as to
prevent their passage, usually
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
as a projecting shield on a
masonry foundation or pier (or
Reinforced Concrete under a wood sill or beam
Floor Systems
which it supports), or around
Roof Decks pipes which enter the building.
Walls & Structural 6. Rat proofing – a method of protecting rooms against the intrusion of rats
Walls
and other small destructive animals from gnawing the wooden parts of the
Pre-Stress Concrete house and habitating the under-ceilings and under-floors of houses and
buildings.
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems 7. Fire proofing – application of cover materials to structural steel components
or systems to provide increased fire resistance. Also called sprayed
Building Protection fireproofing. Example is FLAMESHIELD FIREPROOFING, Filipino
3.9
Systems
invented, non-asbestos fiber mix on non-organic binder; 1” thk for 2-hour fire
rating, 2” thk for 3 hour fire rating and 3”thk for 4-hour fire rating. Another
example is, MONOKOTE MK-6, a gypsum-based, cementitious spray applied
fireproofing product, from Grace Construction Products.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 8. Floor protection – a method of protecting finish floor surfaces from
wear and tear or from chemical abrasions due to heavy use.
Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls, 9. Rust proofing – a method of protecting the steel and other ferrous
Basement materials from corrosion.
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete 10. Descalers, paint and chemical strippers – a method of removing
Columns old paint by the use of a paint remover; and stains, rust, algae or
Reinforced Concrete
even cement build-up on forms or equipment, by the use of a chemical
Floor Systems stripper or descaler.
Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
Systems

Paint remover – A liquid which is applied to a dry paint or varnish to cause it to soften or lose adhesion so that it may be removed
easily.
Stripper – A liquid designed to remove coatings by chemical and/or solvent action.
Descaler – A liquid designed to remove scale that forms on the inside of hot water heaters, boilers, etc.
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 3.9.2 WATERPROOFING
Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls, 1. Application Locations:

Basement
Construction, Cisterns
• Top of roof decks
Reinforced Concrete • Top of concrete terraces, balconies, ledges and canopies
Columns
• Under-sheathing for wood shingle and tile roofing
Reinforced Concrete • Interior surfaces of water tanks
Floor Systems • Exterior surfaces of concrete roof gutters
Roof Decks
• Inside surfaces of plantboxes
• Kitchen floor
Walls & Structural • Toilets
Walls
• Basement floor and walls
Pre-Stress Concrete • Elevator pits
• Swimming pools and fish ponds
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
• Machine, mechanical and pump rooms
• Refrigeration and cold storage rooms
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
2. Four Types of Waterproofing
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction • Integral type – powder form waterproofing compound mixed with the
Foundations Systems
cement-aggregate mixture. For example one bag of integral
waterproofing compound, such as SAHARA or SAKURA is added to
Foundation Walls, 98 kilos off Portland cement.
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
• Membrane type – a hot or cold membrane applied to the surface; for
Reinforced Concrete example asphalt paper laid with hot asphalt or self sealing asphalt
Columns
paper. Examples from WR Grace Co. are BITUTHENE CP for toilet
Reinforced Concrete slabs and BITUTHENE 3000 for roof decks; and ICE AND WATER
Floor Systems SHIELD self-sealing and self-adhering rubberized membrane for main
Roof Decks
entrance canopies made of metal.

Walls & Structural • Fluid type – a fluid applied elastomeric coating formulated to
Walls waterproof and preserve the substrate of concrete, wood, and steel.
Pre-Stress Concrete The wide temperature range, withstands extreme thermal movement,
settling and cracking; resists puncture and tearing; and can be applied
Pre-Cast Concrete by roller, brush, spray or squeegee. Examples of exposed type liquid
Floor Systems
membrane waterproofing from WR Grace are NEWFLEX and
Building Protection
3.9
NEWFLEX R100 for ledges.
Systems
• Cementitious type – powder form waterproofing compound mixed
with water and applied by brush to the surface to be waterproofed.
Examples from WR Grace are MORTASEAL and HYDRATITE for
concrete gutters, ledges
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 FOUNDATION AND SUB-STRUCTURE WATER PROOFING
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
GROUND BEAM
Building Protection
3.9 WATER PROOFING
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
BASE SLAB - PIPE PENETRATION WATER
Building Protection
3.9 PROOFING
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
“THROUGH WALL” PENETRATION
3.9 WATER PROOFING
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 FLAT DECK WATER PROOFING
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
Systems

UPSTAND DETAIL-SHEAR MEMBER

 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
Systems

TYPICAL DRAIN DETAIL

 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
Systems
TYPICAL PIPE DETAIL THROUGH ROOF SLAB
(LIQUID MEMBRANE DETAIL)
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
TYPICAL PIPE DETAIL THROUGH ROOF SLAB (SHEET MEMBRANE
Building Protection DETAIL)
3.9
Systems
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction

Foundations Systems

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns

Reinforced Concrete
Columns

Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems

Roof Decks

Walls & Structural

Walls

Pre-Stress Concrete

Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems

Building Protection
3.9
Systems EXPANSION JOINT COVER
DECK OR WALL JUNCTION
 Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed 3.9.3 THERMAL INSULATION
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
1. Application Locations of heat insulators:
Foundations Systems • Top or bottom of roof decks
• Below roofing sheets
Foundation Walls, • Above suspended ceiling
Basement
Construction, Cisterns 2. Types of Thermal Insulators
• Loose Fill – fibrous type and granular type
Reinforced Concrete • Blanket Insulation – is made from fibrous materials such as mineral wool, wood fiber,
Columns cotton fiber or animal hair and made into batt[1] or boards. Example is PARSEC
Reinforced Concrete
Thermo Brite II for underneath metal roofing insulation.
Floor Systems • Block or Rigid Slab Insulation – stiff and inelastic such as foamed plastic, cellular
glass, foamed concrete, etc. Example is STYROFOAM ROOFMATE SL extruded
Roof Decks polysterene board as manufactured by DOW Chemicals, for inaccessible roof decks.
• Foamed-in Place Insulation – a polyurethane product made by combining a
Walls & Structural polyisocyanate and a polyester resin. This type of insulation can be applied either by
Walls
pouring or by spraying. The basic ingredients for both are drawn from their containers,
Pre-Stress Concrete measured and mixed by machine.
• Sprayed-on Insulation – materials used are polyurethane foam asbestos fiber mixed
Pre-Cast Concrete with inorganic binders; vermiculite aggregate with a binder such as Portland cement or
Floor Systems gypsum and perlite aggregate using gypsum as a binder. Machines are used for
blowing these insulations into place and as a result, the shape and irregularity of the
Building Protection
Systems
3.9 surface being insulated is of little consequence. Example is MBA SPRAYED-ON
POLYURETHANE INSULATION; 25 mm thick x 1.5 pcf density for accessible roof
decks.

Batt Insulation – A flexible blanket- type thermal insulation, commonly used as insulation between studs or joints in frame
construction; also used as an acoustical material or a component in sound-insulating construction. Usually made from rock,
slag, or glass fibers. Sometimes has a vapor barrier on one side or is entirely enclosed in paper with a vapor barrier on one
side.
BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
3

END