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Advanced Network Security

The document discusses prime numbers, their properties, and applications in cryptography, including primality testing and factorization algorithms. It covers various algorithms for determining primality, such as deterministic and probabilistic methods, and highlights the significance of the Chinese remainder theorem and quadratic congruences. Additionally, it explores the role of prime factorization in public-key cryptosystems and provides examples to illustrate these concepts.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
9 views91 pages

Advanced Network Security

The document discusses prime numbers, their properties, and applications in cryptography, including primality testing and factorization algorithms. It covers various algorithms for determining primality, such as deterministic and probabilistic methods, and highlights the significance of the Chinese remainder theorem and quadratic congruences. Additionally, it explores the role of prime factorization in public-key cryptosystems and provides examples to illustrate these concepts.

Uploaded by

ML Hridoy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 91

Outlines

01 Prime numbers and their


applications in cryptography.

Primality test algorithms 02


and their efficiencies.

Factorization algorithms
03 and their applications in
cryptography.
The Chinese remainder
theorem and its 04
application.

05 Quadratic congruence.

modular exponentiation
06
and logarithm. 1
1.Prime numbers and their applications in
Cryptography

2
Definition
A positive integer is a prime if and only if it is exactly divisible by
two integers, 1 and itself. A composite is a positive integer with
more than two divisors.

Figure 1.1 Three groups of positive integers

3
Continued
Example 1.1
What is the smallest prime?
Solution
The smallest prime is 2, which is divisible by 2 (itself) and 1.

Example 1.2

List the primes smaller than 10.

Solution
There are four primes less than 10: 2, 3, 5, and 7. It is
interesting to note that the percentage of primes in the range
1 to 10 is 40%. The percentage decreases as the range
increases. 4
Continued
Coprimes
Two positive integers, a and b, are relatively prime, or coprime,
if gcd (a, b) = 1. Note that the number 1 is relatively prime with
any integer. If p is a prime, then all integers 1 to p − 1 are
relatively prime to p.
Cardinality of Primes

After the concept of primes has been defined, two questions


naturally arise: Is there a finite number of primes or is the list
infinite?

5
Cardinality of Primes
Infinite Number of Primes
There is an infinite number of primes.
Number of Primes
A function called π(n) is defined that finds the number of
primes smaller than or equal to n. The following shows the
values of this function for different n’s.

If the number is too big. The the following equation is used for
find the range.

6
Continued
Example 1.3
Find the number of primes less than 1,000,000.

Solution
The approximation gives the range 72,383 to 78,543. The
actual number of primes is 78,498.

7
Checking for Primeness
Given a number n, how can we determine if n is a prime? The answer
is that we need to see if the number is divisible by all primes less than

Ön
We know that this method is inefficient, but it is a good start.

8
Continued
Example 1.5
Is 97 a prime?
Solution
The floor of Ö97 = 9. The primes less than 9 are 2, 3, 5, and
7. We need to see if 97 is divisible by any of these numbers.
It is not, so 97 is a prime.

9
Continued
Sieve of Eratosthenes
The Greek mathematician Eratosthenes devised a method to find
all primes less than n. The method is called the sieve of
Eratosthenes. Suppose we want to find all prime less than 100.
We write down all the numbers between 2 and 100. Because
Ö100 = 10, we need to see if any number less than 100 is divisible
by 2, 3, 5, and 7. Table 1.1 shows the result.

10
Continued
Table 1.1 Sieve of Eratosthenes

11
Euler’s Phi-Function
Euler’s phi-function, f (n), which is sometimes called the
Euler’s totient function plays a very important role in
cryptography.

12
Continued
We can combine the above four rules to find the value of
f(n). For example, if n can be factored as
n = p1e1 × p2e2 × … × pkek
then we combine the third and the fourth rule to find

13
Continued

Example 1.6

What is the value of f(13)?

Solution
Because 13 is a prime, f(13) = (13 −1) = 12.

Example 1.7

What is the value of f(10)?


Solution
We can use the third rule: f(10) = f(2) × f(5) = 1 × 4 = 4,
because 2 and 5 are primes.
14
Fermat’s Little Theorem
First Version

ap − 1 ≡ 1 mod p

Second Version

ap ≡ a mod p

15
Applications
Exponentiation
Example 1.7
Find the result of 610 mod 11.
Solution
We have 610 mod 11 = 1. This is the first version of Fermat’s
little theorem where p = 11.
Example 1.8
Find the result of 312 mod 11.
Solution
Here the exponent (12) and the modulus (11) are not the same.
With substitution this can be solved using Fermat’s little
theorem.

16
Continued
Multiplicative Inverses
a−1 mod p = a p − 2 mod p

Example 1.9
The answers to multiplicative inverses modulo a prime can be
found without using the extended Euclidean algorithm:

17
Euler’s Theorem
First Version

af(n) ≡ 1 (mod n)

Second Version

a k × f(n) + 1 ≡ a (mod n)

18
Applications
Exponentiation

Example 1.10

Find the result of 624 mod 35.

Solution
We have 624 mod 35 = 6f(35) mod 35 = 1.

19
Continued
Multiplicative Inverses
Euler’s theorem can be used to find multiplicative inverses
modulo a composite.
a−1 mod n = af(n)−1 mod n

Example 1.11
The answers to multiplicative inverses modulo a composite can
be found without using the extended Euclidean algorithm if we
know the factorization of the composite:

20
Generating Primes
Mersenne Primes
A number in the form Mp = 2p − 1 is called a Mersenne number
and may or may not be a prime.

21
Continued
Fermat Primes

F0 = 3 F1 = 5 F2 = 17 F3 = 257 F4 = 65537
F5 = 4294967297 = 641 × 6700417 Not a prime

22
2. PRIMALITY TESTING

23
PRIMALITY TESTING
Finding an algorithm to correctly and efficiently test a very
large integer and output a prime or a composite has always been
a challenge in number theory, and consequently in
cryptography. However, recent developments look very
promising.

24
Continued
Algorithms that deal with this issue can be divided into two
broad categories:
1.Deterministic algorithms
A deterministic primality testing algorithm accepts an
integer and always outputs a prime or a composite.
2.Probabilistic algorithms
A probabilistic algorithm does not guarantee the correctness of
the result. However, we can make the probability of error so
small that it is almost certain that the algorithm has returned a
correct answer.

25
Deterministic Algorithms
Divisibility Algorithm
The most elementary deterministic test for primality is the divisibility
test. We use as divisors all numbers smaller that . If any of these
numbers divides n, then n is composite.

26
Continued
Example 2.1
Assume n has 200 bits. What is the number of bit operations
needed to run the divisibility-test algorithm?
Solution
The bit-operation complexity of this algorithm is 2 n /2. This
b

means that the algorithm needs 2100 bit operations. On a


computer capable of doing 230 bit operations per second, the
algorithm needs 270 seconds to do the testing (forever).

27
Continued
AKS Algorithm

In 2002, Agrawal, Kayal, and Saxena announced that they had


found an algorithm for primality testing with polynomial bit-
operation.

28
Continued
Example 2.1
Assume n has 200 bits. What is the number of bit operations
needed to run the AKS algorithm?

Solution
This algorithm needs only (log2200)12 = 39,547,615,483 bit
operations. On a computer capable of doing 1 billion bit
operations per second, the algorithm needs only 40 seconds.

29
Probabilistic Algorithms
Fermat Test

Note that this means that if n is a prime, the congruence holds.


It does not mean that if the congruence holds, n is a prime. The
integer can be a prime or composite. We can define the
following as the Fermat test
If n is a prime, an−1 ≡ 1 mod n
If n is a composite, it is possible that an−1 ≡ 1 mod n

30
Continued
Example 2.1

Does the number 561 pass the Fermat test?

Solution
Use base 2

The number passes the Fermat test, but it is not a prime,


because 561 = 33 × 17.

31
Continued
Fermat Test
In this test, we write n − 1 as the product of an odd number m
and a power of 2

The Miller-Rabin test needs from step


0 to step k − 1.

32
Continued
Pseudocode

There exists a proof that each time a number passes a Miller-Rabin test,
the probability that it is not a prime is 1/4.
33
Continued
Example 2.1

Does the number 561 pass the Miller-Rabin test?

Solution
Using base 2, let 561 − 1 = 35 × 24, which means m = 35, k =
4, and a = 2.

34
Continued
Example 2.1
We already know that 27 is not a prime. Let us apply the Miller-
Rabin test.

Solution
With base 2, let 27 − 1 = 13 × 21, which means that m = 13, k
= 1, and a = 2. In this case, because k − 1 = 0, we should do
only the initialization step: T = 2 13 mod 27 = 11 mod 27.
However, because the algorithm never enters the loop, it
returns a composite.

35
3. Factorization algorithms and their
applications in cryptography

36
Factorization

Factorization has been the subject of continuous research in the


past; such research is likely to continue in the future.
Factorization plays a very important role in the security of
several public-key cryptosystems .

37
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
According to the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, any
positive integer greater than one can be written uniquely in the
following prime factorization form where p1, p2,…, pk are
primes and e1, e2, …, ek are positive integers.
Greatest Common Divisor

Least Common Multiplier

38
Factorization Methods
Trial Division Method

Algorithm

39
Continued
Example 2.1

Use the trial division algorithm to find the factors of 1233.

Solution
We run a program based on the algorithm and get the
following result.

40
Continued
Fermat Method

Algorithm
41
Continued
Pollard p – 1 Method

Algorithm
42
Continued
Example 2.1
Use the Pollard p − 1 method to find a factor of 57247159 with
the bound B = 8.

Solution
We run a program based on the algorithm and find that p =
421. As a matter of fact 57247159 = 421 × 135979. Note that
421 is a prime and p − 1 has no factor greater than 8

421 − 1 = 22 × 3 × 5 × 7

43
4.CHINESE REMAINDER THEOREM

44
Definition & Equation
The Chinese remainder theorem (CRT) is used to solve a set of
congruent equations with one variable but different moduli, which
are relatively prime, as shown below:

The Chinese remainder theorem states that the above equations


have a unique solution if the moduli are relatively prime.
45
Solution To Chinese Remainder Theorem

1. Find M = m1 × m2 × … × mk. This is the common modulus.


2. Find M1 = M/m1, M2 = M/m2, …, Mk = M/mk.
3. Find the multiplicative inverse of M 1, M2, …, Mk using the
corresponding moduli (m1, m2, …, mk). Call the inverses
M1−1, M2−1, …, Mk −1.
4. The solution to the simultaneous equations is

46
Example 1
Find the solution to the simultaneous equations:

47
Solution

We follow the four steps.

1. M = 3 × 5 × 7 = 105

2. M1 = 105 / 3 = 35, M2 = 105 / 5 = 21, M3 = 105 / 7 = 15

3. The inverses are M1−1 = 2, M2−1 = 1, M3 −1 = 1

4. x = (2 × 35 × 2 + 3 × 21 × 1 + 2 × 15 × 1) mod 105
= 23 mod 105

48
Applications

1. To solve quadratic congruence.

2. To represent a very large integer in terms of a list of small


integers.

49
5. QUADRATIC CONGRUENCE

50
Quadratic Congruence Modulo a Prime
We first consider the case in which the modulus is a prime.

Example 5.1

The equation x2 ≡ 3 (mod 11) has two solutions, x ≡ 5 (mod


11) and x ≡ −5 (mod 11). But note that −5 ≡ 6 (mod 11), so
the solutions are actually 5 and 6. Also note that these two
solutions are incongruent.

Example 5.2

The equation x2 ≡ 2 (mod 11) has no solution. No integer x


can be found such that its square is 2 mod 11.

51
Quadratic Residues and Nonresidue
In the equation x2 ≡ a (mod p), a is called a quadratic residue (QR)
if the equation has two solutions; a is called quadratic nonresidue
(QNR) if the equation has no solutions.

52
Continued
Example 5.3
There are 10 elements in Z11*. Exactly five of them are
quadratic residues and five of them are nonresidues. In
other words, Z11* is divided into two separate sets, QR and
QNR, as shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Division of Z11* elements into QRs and QNRs

53
Continued
Euler’s Criterion
a. If a(p−1)/2 ≡ 1 (mod p), a is a quadratic residue
modulo p.
b. If a(p−1)/2 ≡ −1 (mod p), a is a quadratic nonresidue modulo
p.
Example 5.4

To find out if 14 or 16 is a QR in Z23*, we calculate:

14 (23−1)/2 mod 23 → 22 mod 23 → −1 mod 23 nonresidue

16 (23−1)/2 mod 23 → 1611 mod 23→ 1 mod 23 residue

54
Continued
Example 5.3
There are 10 elements in Z11*. Exactly five of them are
quadratic residues and five of them are nonresidues. In
other words, Z11* is divided into two separate sets, QR and
QNR, as shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Division of Z11* elements into QRs and QNRs

55
Solving Quadratic Equation Modulo a Prime
Although the Euler criterion tells us if an integer a is a QR or
QNR in Zp*, it cannot find the solution. To find the solution to
this quadratic equation, we notice that a prime can be either p = 4k
+ 1 or p = 4k + 3, in which k is a positive integer. The solution to a
quadratic equation is very involved in the first case; it is easier in
the second.

56
Continued
Example 5.4
Solve the following quadratic equations:

Solution

a. x ≡ ± 16 (mod 23) √3 ≡ ± 16 (mod 23).

b. There is no solution for √2 in Z11.

c. x ≡ ± 11 (mod 19). √7 ≡ ± 11 (mod 19). 57


Quadratic Congruence Modulo a Composite

Figure 5.2 Decomposition of congruence modulo a composite

58
Continued
Example 5.5
Assume that x2 ≡ 36 (mod 77). We know that 77 = 7 × 11.
We can write

The answers are x ≡ +1 (mod 7), x ≡ − 1 (mod 7), x ≡ + 5 (mod


11), and x ≡ − 5 (mod 11). Now we can make four sets of
equations out of these:

The answers are x = ± 6 and ± 27.


59
Complexity

Solving a quadratic congruence modulo a composite is as


hard as factorization of the modulus.

60
6. EXPONENTIATION AND LOGARITHM

61
EXPONENTIATION AND LOGARITHM
Exponentiation and logarithm are inverses of each other.
The following shows the relationship between them, in
which a is called the base of the exponentiation or
logarithm.

62
EXPONENTIATION

In cryptography, a common modular operation is


exponentiation. That is, we often need to calculate

63
Fast Exponentiation
Fast exponentiation is possible using the square-and-multiply
method. In traditional algorithms only multiplication is used to
simulate exponentiation, but the fast exponentiation algorithm uses
both squaring and multiplication.

Figure 6.1 The idea behind the square-and-multiply method


64
Continued

Algorithm 6.1 Pseudocode for square-and-multiply algorithm

65
Continued
Example 5.5
Figure 6.1 shows the process for calculating y = a x using the
Algorithm 6.1 (for simplicity, the modulus is not shown). In this
case, x = 22 = (10110)2 in binary. The exponent has five bits.

Figure 6.2 Demonstration of calculation of a 22 using square-and-


multiply method

66
Continued

Table 6.1 Calculation of 1722 mod 21

67
Logarithm
In cryptography, we also need to discuss modular logarithm. If we
use exponentiation to encrypt or decrypt, the adversary can use
logarithm to attack. We need to know how hard it is to reverse the
exponentiation.

68
Exhaustive Search

Algorithm 6.2 Exhaustive search for modular logarithm

69
Continued

Table 6.2 Power of integers, modulo 19


70
Discrete Logarithm
Order of the Group.
Example 6.2

What is the order of group G = <Z21∗, ×>? |G| = f(21) = f(3) ×


f(7) = 2 × 6 =12. There are 12 elements in this group: 1, 2, 4, 5, 8,
10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, and 20. All are relatively prime with 21.

71
Continued
Order of an Element.
Example 6.3
Find the order of all elements in G = <Z 10∗, ×>.
Solution
This group has only f(10) = 4 elements: 1, 3, 7, 9. We can find the
order of each element by trial and error.
a. 11 ≡ 1 mod (10) → ord(1) = 1.
b. 34 ≡ 1 mod (10) → ord(3) = 4.
c. 74 ≡ 1 mod (10) → ord(7) = 4.
d. 92 ≡ 1 mod (10) → ord(9) = 2.
72
Continued
Euler’s Theorem
Example 6.4

Table 6.3 Finding the orders of elements in Example 6.4

73
Continued
Primitive Roots
In the group G = <Zn∗, ×>, when the order of an element is the
same as f(n), that element is called the primitive root of the group.

74
Continued
Primitive Roots
Example 6.5
Below shows the result of ai ≡ x (mod 7) for the group
G = <Z7∗, ×>. In this group, f(7) = 6.

75
Continued
Cyclic Group
If g is a primitive root in the group, we can generate the set Z n* as
Zn∗ = {g1, g2, g3, …, gf(n)}
Example 6.6
The group G = <Z10*, ×> has two primitive roots because f(10) =
4 and f(f(10)) = 2. It can be found that the primitive roots are 3
and 7. The following shows how we can create the whole set Z 10*
using each primitive root.

76
Continued
The idea of Discrete Logarithm
Properties of G = <Zp*, ×> :

1. Its elements include all integers from 1 to p − 1.

2. It always has primitive roots.

3. It is cyclic. The elements can be created using g x where


x is an integer from 1 to f(n) = p − 1.

4. The primitive roots can be thought as the base of logarithm.

77
Continued
Solution to Modular Logarithm Using Discrete Logs
Tabulation of Discrete Logarithms

Table

78
Continued
Example 6.6

Find x in each of the following cases:


a. 4 ≡ 3x (mod 7).
b. 6 ≡ 5x (mod 7).
Solution

We can easily use the tabulation of the discrete logarithm in Table.


a. 4 ≡ 3x mod 7 → x = L34 mod 7 = 4 mod 7

b. 6 ≡ 5x mod 7 → x = L56 mod 7 = 3 mod 7


79
Continued
Using Properties of Discrete Logarithms

Table 9.7 Comparison of traditional and discrete logarithms

80
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rutrum lorem volutpat, a rutrum lorem volutpat, a
nunc ornari. nunc ornari.

Lorem Ipsum Lorem Ipsum


Lorem ipsum dolor sit Lorem ipsum dolor sit
amet, at pede luctus vel amet, at pede luctus vel
gravida, nonummy massa gravida, nonummy massa
rutrum lorem volutpat, a rutrum lorem volutpat, a
nunc ornari. nunc ornari.

90
6-Step Hexagons Puzzle Diagram

Lorem Ipsum Lorem Ipsum


Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, nibh est. Step 2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, nibh est.
A magna maecenas, quam magna nec Step 1 Your text goes here
Your text goes here
A magna maecenas, quam magna nec
quis, lorem nunc. Suspendisse viverra Your text goes here
Your text goes here
quis, lorem nunc. Suspendisse viverra
sodales mauris, cras pharetra proin sodales mauris, cras pharetra proin
egestas arcu erat dolor, at amet. egestas arcu erat dolor, at amet.

Lorem Ipsum Step 3 Lorem Ipsum


Lorem
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
nibh est. A magna maecenas,
Step 6 Ipsum
Your text goes here
Your text goes here
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
nibh est. A magna maecenas,
Your text goes here
quam magna nec quis, lorem quam magna nec quis, lorem
Your text goes here
nunc. Suspendisse viverra nunc. Suspendisse viverra
sodales mauris, cras pharetra sodales mauris, cras pharetra
proin egestas arcu erat dolor, at proin egestas arcu erat dolor, at
amet. amet.

Lorem Ipsum Step 5 Step 4 Lorem Ipsum


Your text goes here
Your text goes here Your text goes here
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, nibh est. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, nibh est.
A magna maecenas, quam magna nec Your text goes here A magna maecenas, quam magna nec
quis, lorem nunc. Suspendisse viverra quis, lorem nunc. Suspendisse viverra
sodales mauris, cras pharetra proin sodales mauris, cras pharetra proin
egestas arcu erat dolor, at amet. egestas arcu erat dolor, at amet.
91

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