Selection & formulation of Research

Question, Data collection, Types of

data & Sampling

Reshma.S.B
Research Planning: All research activity should planned
systematically & scientifically
Research Problem: 1. Statement of research problem
2. Relevance of the problem to national & local health
activities. 3. Fields of application of the proposed
research results.

Review of literature: 1. It helps to redefine “the

statement of research problem”. 2. It helps to identify
the study variables & conceptualize their relationships.
3. It helps in the selection & formulation of “research
hypothesis”. 4. It helps to find out what others have
reported on the same topic.
Formulation of research hypothesis: A hypothesis can
be defined as – “ A tentative prediction or explanation
of the relationship between two or more variables.”
Statement of research hypothesis:

A specific version of research question

Stated for analytical questions with comparison
groups

Purely descriptive questions do not require
hypothesis
Example of research hypothesis: Among diabetics
(type 2 diabetes) from the study area, who do brisk
walking for at least 1-hour daily results in average
reduction of 10 mg% of fasting blood sugar level as
compared to those who do not
Statistic or Datum – A single measured
or counted fact or an information
expressed as a figure

In plural sense – Statistics or Data

means ‘numerically stated facts’ or
‘Facts expressed as numbers’
In Singular sense Statistics can be defined as-

It is the science which deals with development

and application of the most appropriate
methods for:
 Collection of data
 Organizing and Presentation of the
collected data.
 Analysis and interpretation of the results
 Making decisions on the basis of analysis
 DEFINITION OF STATISTICS

“Statistics defined as the science of

Collection, Presentation, Analysis
and Interpretation of numerical data.”
 DEFINITION OF BIOSTATISTICS

“Tools and techniques of Statistics applied in

the fields of biological sciences like
medicine, biology, agriculture, public health
etc. for planning, conducting and analyzing
data which arise in investigations of these
branches.”
Statistics undergoes different names when it is applied
to the data from different fields:
1.Health Statistics: It deals with the methodologies of collection,
compilation & interpretation if numerical facts concerned with
the health, ill health of the human population.

2.Medical Statistics: It is related to the study of defect, disease,

injury, efficacy of drug, line of treatment.

3.Vital Statistics: It is the science applied to the analysis &

interpretation of numerical facts regarding the vital events
occurring in human population such as birth, death, marriage,
divorce, etc.

4.Population Statistics / Demography: It is the scientific study of

human population.
Role of Statistics

 Helps in designing an experiment or

survey prior to data collection
 To analyze data using appropriate
statistical procedures and techniques
 To present and interpret the results to
researchers and other decision makers
ROLE OF BIOSTATISTICS

 Identify and develop treatments for disease

and estimate their effects.
 Identify risk factors for diseases.
 Design, monitor, analyse, interpret, and report
results of clinical studies.
 Develop statistical methodologies to address
questions arising from medical/public health
data.
 Locate , define & measure extent of disease
Ultimate objective- improve the health of
individual & community
 Branches of Statistics
The study of statistics has two major branches:
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Statistics

Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics

Involves the Involves using a
organization, sample to draw
summarization, & conclusions about
display of data. a population.
 Data Collection

Some basic statistical concepts

Data

Qualitative Quantitative
Data Data
 Types of
variables

Quantitative Qualitative
(measurable) (Categorical)
variables variables

Discrete Continuous
Nominal Ordinal
variable Variable
Quantitative Variables – Characteristics which
can be numerically measured
Ex. Height, weight, HB level, pulse, BP etc.

-Discrete variables – Those variables which

can take only integer values
ex. No. of children in the family, scores
obtained in MCQ’s, No. of missing tooth etc.

-Continuous variables – Those variables which

can take all possible values in an interval
ex. Height, weight, HB level etc.
Qualitative variables – Characteristics which
are non-numeric(categorical) but can only be
counted on basis of no. of times of its
occurrence(frequency).
Ex. Blood group, status of the disease, cause
of death, nationality, gender etc.
 Types of Data

 Primary data – First hand data Collected by

the investigator for a specific purpose
Methods of collecting primary data are-
 By direct observation
 By Personal interviews
 Using questionnaires
 Using schedules
Secondary data – Second hand data collected
by someone else for some other purpose but
is being used by the investigator for his/her
studies
 Published sources like reports &
publications of National & International
bodies
 Journals, magazines & News papers
 Internet
 Unpublished sources like records
maintained by Government offices,
Municipal offices, panchayat offices,
research institutions, research scholars
etc.
Sampling
Concept of sampling POPULATION

SAMPLE

A process of selecting units
from a population


A process of selecting a sample to
determine certain characteristics of a population


A sample is a subset of a larger population of
objects individuals, households, businesses,
organizations and so forth.

Sampling enables researchers to make
estimates of some unknown characteristics
of the population in question


A finite group is called population whereas a
non-finite (infinite) group is called universe


A census is a investigation of all the
individual elements of a population
Why sampling

Less costs

Less field time

More accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better Job of
Data Collection

When it’s impossible to study the whole
population
Probability Sampling:
Utilizes some form of random selection. A
probability sample is a sample in which every
element of the population has a known and
equal probability of being selected into the
sample.

Non-probability sampling:
Does not involve random selection
Types of Probability Sampling :

Simple random Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Cluster/area Sampling

Multi-stage Sampling

Multi-phase Sampling
Types of Non-probability sampling :


Convenience Sampling

Judgment Sampling

Quota Sampling

Snow ball Sampling
Process:
The sampling process comprises several
stages:
– Defining the population of concern
– Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or
events possible to measure
– Specifying a sampling method for selecting items
or events from the frame
– Determining the sample size
– Implementing the sampling plan
– Sampling and data collecting
– Reviewing the sampling process
Simple random Sampling:

Population sample

Probability selected = n i /N
When population is rather uniform (e.g.
school/college students, low-cost houses)

Random selection:
Pick any “element”
Use random table/ Lottery /chit
Simple random Sampling:
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous
& readily available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability. Each element of the frame thus has an
equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples.
This is done by assigning a number to each unit in
the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used
to determine which units are to be selected
Simple random Sampling:

Advantages:

All have an equal chance of being chosen.

This avoids subjective bias and human element.

Disadvantages:

Practical use restricted to small populations.

Small samples may not be representative of the
population. Therefore you need a large sample.

Costly and time consuming.
Stratified Sampling:

Population Sample

Stratum1 = odd no

Stratum2 = even no
Break population into “meaningful” strata and take
random sample from each stratum
Can be proportionate or disproportionate within strata
When: * population is not very uniform (e.g. shoppers,
houses)
Stratified Sampling:


This sample is divided up into segments or ‘strata’,
often preferred as it makes the sample more
representative of the whole group.


For example if a business wished know how class
affects demand for food. Put the population into
classes then take a random sample from these
Systematic Sampling:

Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target
population according to some ordering scheme and then
selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list.


Systematic sampling involves a random start and then
proceeds with the selection of every kth element from
then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample
size).


It is important that the starting point is not automatically
the first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from
within the first to the kth element in the list.


A simple example would be to select every 10th name
from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also
referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').
Systematic Sampling

Simple or stratified in nature

Systematic in the “picking-up” of element.
Example: every 5th, 10th, 15th ……

Steps:
* Number the population (1,…,N)
* Decide on the sample size,
* Decide on the interval size, k = N/n
* Select an integer between 1 and k
* Take case for every kth unit
Cluster/area Sampling:

Research involves spatial issues ( e.g. do prices
vary according to neighbourhood’s level of crime?)

Sampling involves analysis of geographic units

Sampling involves extensive travelling -> try to
minimise logistic and resources
Steps:
* Divide population into “clusters” (localities)
* Choose clusters randomly (simple random, stratified,
etc.)
* Take all cases from each cluster Efficient from
administrative perspective
Cluster/area Sampling:

Cluster/area Sampling is an example of 'two-stage
sampling' .

First stage a sample of areas is chosen;

Second stage a sample of respondents within those
areas is selected.

Population divided into clusters of homogeneous
units, usually based on geographical contiguity.

Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.

A sample of such clusters is then selected.

All units from the selected clusters are studied.
Cluster sampling:
Put population into clusters (often via geographic
areas then take a random sample from the cluster).

Advantages

Cheap & Fast of preparing a sampling frame.

This can reduce travel and other administrative
costs.

Disadvantages

sampling error is higher for a simple random sample
of same size.

Often used to evaluate vaccination coverage
Multistage Sampling:

Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or
more levels of units are embedded one in the other.


First stage, random number of districts chosen in all
states.


Followed by random number of talukas, villages.


Then third stage units will be houses.


All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at
last step are surveyed.
Multiphase Sampling:

Part of the information collected from whole sample &
part from subsample.


In Tb survey MT in all cases – Phase I


X –Ray chest in MT +ve cases – Phase II


Sputum examination in X – Ray +ve cases - Phase III


Survey by such procedure is less costly, less
laborious & more purposeful
Non-probability sampling:
Convenience Sampling:
Non-probability samples used primarily because
they are easy to collect.
A sample which can be studied easily & quickly.

Judgment /Purposive Sampling:

Non-probability samples in which the selection
criteria are based on personal judgment that the
element is representative of the population under
study.
Non-probability sampling:
Quota Sampling:
Non-probability samples in which population
subgroups are classified on the basis of researcher
judgment.

Snowball Sampling:
Non-probability samples in which selection of
additional respondents is based on referrals from
the initial respondents.
EX: Drug users, homeless youth etc..
Thank you