Chapter (7 and 8)

Algorithms and programming

Computer Science
Department
Institute of International
Professionalism
 Program Development
Life Cycle
• Analysis
 abstraction, decomposition of the problem,
identification of the problem and requirements
• Design
 decomposition, structure diagrams, flowcharts,
pseudocode
• Coding
 writing program code and iterative testing
• Testing
 testing program code with the use of test data
 Variable and a Constant

A variable is a storage location. It is a named

value that contains data that can be changed
throughout the execution.

A constant is also a storage location. It is a

named location that contains a value that we
don’t want to change during the running of the
program.
 Use Suitable Declaration

 Meaningful Names
•The name should describe exactly the type of data stored
in it.

Example
count = 0
student_name = “ ”
Const ticket_price=25
 Use Suitable Declaration

 Variables

• Use lower case letters at the start of variable names

•Use either camel casing (without any white space, 1st letter is lower
and every word starts with a capital letter [fileNotFound]) or snake
casing (uses an underscore between words to create separation
[build_docker])
 Use Suitable Declaration

 Constants
• Use “Const” at the start of the name
• Capitalise name
• Use either camel casing or snake casing
Camel
ConstTICKETPRICE = 25

Snake
Const_TICKET_PRICE = 25
 Use Suitable Declaration

 Array
• Can be either a specified or unspecified length
• Always use the square brakets
No length given
totalPrice= [ ]

Length declared
home_start_code = [0:4]
Data
type
Mathematical operators
Comparison Operators
Operators Description

== equal to
!= , <> not equal
> greater than
< less than
>= greater than or equal to
<= less than or equal to

Logical Operators
Operators Description

&& And
|| Or
 ALGORITHMS
An algorithm is a set of
instructions/steps/ rules that are
followed to solve a problem.

Algorithm design

There are two common methods to

express algorithm designs, they are

1.Pseudocode

2.Flowcharts.
Pseudocode
 PSEUDOCODE is a method of expressing an
algorithm design.
 Pseudocode is lines of instructions written in a
language close to English but with common
programming terms used where possible (selection
and iteration etc).
 Pseudocode is set out with the same structure as a
programming language, but it is not a not
programming language in itself.
 Pseudocode

 a non-proportional font is used throughout

 all keywords (words used to describe a specific
action e.g. INPUT) are written in capital letters
 all names given to data items and subroutines
start with a capital letter
 where conditional and loop statements are used,
repeated or selected statements are indented by
two spaces
Flowcharts
 Flowcharts are a graphical way of
representing an algorithm design. A
flowchart must have a clear start and
finish (unless looping).
 Sequence

In an algorithm, each instruction is

written one after the other. This is a
called a sequence.

E.g:
Output “How many number”
Input userinput
Number=number+1
 Selection or Conditional
statements
 Creati ng the ability to choose the path to
follow in a program is called selecti on.
 When different actions are preformed by an
algorithm according to the values of the
variables, conditional statements can be used to
decide which action should be taken.

There are 2 types of selection :

 IF.. THEN .. ELSE .. ENDIF
 CASE .. OF .. OTHERWISE .. ENDCASE
IF.. THEN .. ELSE .. ENDIF
 A logical condition is tested.
 A positive (true) outcome will result in the THEN
statements of code being executed.
 A negative (false) outcome will result in the
ELSE statements
IF.. THEN .. ELSE .. ENDIF
CASE .. OF .. OTHERWISE ..
ENDCASE
CASE .. OF .. OTHERWISE ..
ENDCASE
Purpose Of A Conditional
Statement
 To allow different routes through a program
 dependent on meeting certain criteria
 Iteration
(Looping)
In a program there will be some
instructions that need to be repeated.
To repeat instructions we put them in a
loop and this is referred to as iteration.

There are 3 types of iteration :

 FOR .. TO .. NEXT
 REPEAT .. UNTIL
 WHILE .. DO .. ENDWHILE
 FOR .. TO .. NEXT
 Amount of iterations (times around the
loop) is predetermined (fixed) at the
beginning of the loop
 Already know how many iterations of the
code is required
REPEAT .. UNTIL
 Condition/check is placed at the bottom of
the loop, this is referred to as bottom
testing (or a post condition).
 At least one iteration of the loop will be
executed
 If an exit criteria has been met yet
WHILE .. DO .. ENDWHILE
 Condition is placed at the start of the loop, this
is referred to as top testing (or a pre-condition)
 Criteria has been met yet (to exit the loop)
 Procedures and Functions
 A SUB-ROUTINE is a set of programming
instructions for a given task that forms a sub-
system, not the whole system. Sub-routines written
in high-level programming languages are called
‘procedures’ or ‘functions’.
 A procedure is a set of programming statements
grouped together under a single name that can be
called to perform a task at any point in a program.
 A function is a set of programming statements
grouped together under a single name that can be
called to perform a task at any point in a program.
In contrast to a procedure, a function will return a
value back to the main program.
 Parameters are the variables that store the values
of the arguments passed to a procedure or
function. Some but not all procedures and
 Predefined Function, Library, Predefined
Procedure
Predefined Function
a pre-programmed set of instructions that return a
value.
(converting integer to string)

Library
a store of pre-programmed instructions that can be
imported into a program
(print, cout, cin)

Predefined Procedures
a pre-programmed set of instructions that do not
return a value.
(clear the screen command)
Example of Function
Counting and
Totalling
 Counting
 Counting is used with repetition with the
counter increased by 1 every time the loop
is repeated.
 Totalling
 Totalling is used with repetition with the
total updated every time the loop is
repeated.
 Global and Local
Variables
• A global variable can be used by any part of a
program – its scope covers the whole program.
• A local variable can only be used by the part of the
program it has been declared in – its scope is
restricted to that part of the program.
Arrays
 An array is a data structure containing
several elements of the same data type;
these elements can be accessed using
the same identifier name.
 An array is a way of storing data that is
all related and of the same type.
e.g: a list of the names of the students in
your class
 An array is a data structure, storing
more than one item of data (value) at a
time
 Allows to store an unlimited number of
Arrays
An Element is an individual data location in an
array.
Each of the individual items in an array is called an
element.
The index indicates the position of the element
within the array
The dimension of an array is the number of indices
needed to select an element.

Read - Outputting data from an array.

Write – Inputting data into an array to store it.
One dimensional Array
A one-dimensional array can be referred
to as a list.

0 1 2 3 4

Zinger Tower Big Mac Fillet Tower Chicken Sandwich Whopper

e.g. burgers[2] contains “Fillet

Tower”
 One-dimensional Array
Declaration
• the name of the array
• the first index value
• the last index value
• and the data type

DECLARE MyList : ARRAY[0:9] OF INTEGER

Two-dimensional
Arrays
 can create relationships between
stored data
 A two-dimensional array can be
referred to as a table, with rows and
columns.
Name[4]
0 1 2 3 4

Jenny Diane Claire Caragh Ellie

Score[4]
0 1 2 3 4

1000 772 534 1423 2425

Ellie has a high score of 2425,

and Claire of 534
 Two-dimensional Array
Declaration
• the first index value for rows
• the last index value for rows
• the first index value for columns
• the last index value for columns
• and the data type

DECLARE MyTable : ARRAY[0:9,0:2] OF INTEGER

Advantage and
Disadvantage of Array
• In an array, accessing an element is very easy by
using the index number.
• The search process can be applied to an array
easily.
• Array size is fixed: The array is static, which means
its size is always fixed. The memory which is
allocated to it cannot be increased or decreased.
Purpose of storing data
in a file
• Data stored in RAM will be lost when the computer
is switched off, when data is saved to a file it is
stored permanently.
• Data stored in a file can thus be accessed by the
same program at a later date or accessed by
another program.
• Data stored in a file can also be sent to be used on
other computer(s).
• The storage of data in files is one of the most used
features of programming.
Top-Down Design
 Top down design is the name given to breaking a
problem down into increasingly smaller and
smaller manageable parts (also known as
decomposition).
 Top-down design is the decomposition of a
computer system into a set of sub_systems, then
breaking each sub-system down into a set of
smaller sub-systems, until each sub-system just
performs a single action.
 Sometimes referred to as:
 Modules
 Sub-routines
 Procedures
Decomposing a problem
• Inputs – the data used by the system that needs to
be entered while the system is active
• Processes – the tasks that need to be performed
using the input data and any other previously
stored data
• Outputs – information that needs to be displayed
or printed for the users of the system
• Storage – data that needs to be stored in files on an
appropriate medium for use in the future.
Decomposing a problem
• For example, the alarm app can be decomposed into:
• inputs – time to set the alarm, remove a previously
set alarm time, switch an alarm off, press snooze
button
• processes – continuously check if the current time
matches an alarm time that has been set, storage and
removal of alarm times, management of snooze
• outputs – continuous sound/tune (at alarm time or
after snooze time expired)
• storage – time(s) for alarms set.
Structure Diagrams
 Structure diagrams are a graphical way of representing a
problem, showing the different levels of detail. They are a
great way to illustrate all the systems and sub-systems. A
diagram that shows tasks that have been broken down and
how they relate to each others
Benefits of Top-Down Design

 Breaking a problem down into smaller

parts/tasks make it far easier to
understand, solve and manage
 Top down design allows several
programmers or teams to work on the
same project, without getting in each
other’s way
 Each module of code to be tested
separately
FINDING ERRORS
(Debugging)
 Finding syntax error
 Finding Logical Errors
Syntax and Logic Error

Syntax Error
Syntax Error occurs when a programmer
does not follow the rules or structure of
the language they are writing in.

Logic Error
A logic error is an error in the code that
causes the program to do something it
should not.
Testing
 Testing is the process of finding and
removing errors from your code.
 removing syntax errors is easy to spot as
your interpreter
 Finding Logical errors can be a lot
trickier and can end up being a very
time consuming process.
 Example of Test
Data
A system has validation to ensure that only
numerical values between 1 and 10 are entered
as an input.

The test data for this could be:

 Normal data: 5
 Boundary data (extreme data): 1
 Boundary data (extreme data): 10
 Abnormal data (erroneous data): Thirteen
Test Data
 Normal data
• Normal data is test data that is typical (expected) and
should be accepted by the system.
 Boundary data (extreme data)
• Boundary data (sometimes called extreme data) is test data
at the upper or lower limits of expectations that should be
accepted by the system.
 Abnormal data (erroneous data)
• Abnormal data is test data that falls outside of what is
• acceptable and should be rejected by the system.
 Differences between Extreme and
Boundary Data

• Extreme data is the largest/smallest acceptable

value
• Boundary data is the largest/smallest acceptable
value and the corresponding smallest/largest
rejected value
TRACE TABLES
 Record the results from each step in an
algorithm
 Show the value of each variable every
time that it changes
 Work through an algorithm step by step
is called a dry run
 Set up with a column for each variable
and a column for any output.
Validatio
n
 Validation is an automatic check to
ensure that data entered is sensible
and feasible.
 Validation cannot ensure data is
accurate.
Validation
methods
Validation Method Description

Checks the data falls between an acceptable upper and lower value,
Range check
within a set range. E.g: number will be 1 to 5

Checks that the data entered is of an expected type, e.g. text or a number
Type check
Email address, ID Number

Checks the number of characters meets expectations, e.g. an 8

Length check
characters password

Checks that the user has at least inputted something, stopping them from
Presence check
accidentally entering nothing

An extra digit added to a number which is calculated from the other

Check digit
digits, this ensures the rest of the number has been entered properly
Verificatio
n
 Verification is a way of preventing
errors when data is copied from one
medium to another
 Verification does not check if data
makes sense or is within acceptable
boundaries
 Only checks that the data entered is
identical to the original source
 To test if the data input is the same as
 Verification
methods
Verification Method Description

Double entry Data is entered twice and the computer checks that they match up.
Eg:
Enter password:
Re enter password:
The user manually reads and compares the newly inputted data
Visual check
against the original source to ensure they match