UNIT-II

Fabrication Processes
• Introduction:
– Definition
– Principles
– Classification
– Application
– Advantages & limitations of welding.
• Arc Welding:
– Principle
– Metal Arc welding (MAW)
– Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (FSMAW)
– Inert Gas Welding (TIG & MIG)
– Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
– Atomic Hydrogen Welding processes. (AHW)
• Gas Welding:
– Principle
– Oxy – Acetylene welding
– Reaction in Gas welding
– Flame characteristics
– Gas torch construction & working
– Forward and backward welding.
INTRODUCTION
• Welding is a process for joining different materials.
• The large bulk of materials that are welded are metals and their alloys,
although the term welding is also applied to the joining of other materials
such as thermo plastics.
• Welding joins different metals/alloys with the help of a number of processes
in
which heat is supplied either electrically or by means of a gas torch.
• In order to join two or more pieces of metals together by one of the
welding processes, the most essential requirement is Heat. Pressure may
also be employed.
• Since a slight gap usually exists between the edges of the work pieces, a 'filler
metal’ is used to supply additional material to fill the gap. But, welding can
also be carried out without the use of filler metal.
• The filler metal is melted in the gap, combines with the molten metal of
the work piece and upon solidification forms an integral part of the
weld.
• Welding
terminology
PRINCIPLE OF WELDING
• An ideal joint between two pieces of metal or plastic can be made by
heating the workpieces to a suitable temperature. In other words, on
heating, the materials soften sufficiently so that the surfaces fuse together.
• The bonding force holds the atoms, ions or molecules together in a solid.
This
'bonding on contact' is achieved only when:
– the contaminated surface layers on the workpiece are removed,
– recontamination is avoided, and
– the two surfaces are made smooth, flat and fit each other exactly.
• In highly deformable materials, the above aims can be achieved by rapidly
forcing the two surfaces of the workpiece to come closer together so that
plastic deformation makes their shape conform to each another; at the same
time, the surface layers are broken up, allowing the intimate contact needed
to fuse the materials.
• This was the principle of the first way known to weld metals; by hammering
the
pieces together while they are in hot condition.
 Definition

Welding is defined as “a localized coalescence of metals

, wherein coalescence is obtained by heating to suitable
temperature, with or without the application of pressure
and with or without the use of filler metals.”

7
8
CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES (GTU - June 2011, June 2012) (GTU -
June 2015)
• There are about 35 different welding and brazing processes and
several soldering methods in use by industry today.
• There are various ways of classifying the welding and allied processes.
For example, they may be classified on the basis of:
– Source of heat, i.e., flame, arc, etc
– Type of interaction i.e. liquid/liquid (fusion welding) or solid/solid (solid
state welding).
• In general, various welding and allied processes are classified as follows:

1. Gas Welding
 Air Acetylene Welding
 Oxyacetylene Welding
 Oxy hydrogen Welding
 Pressure gas Welding
2. Arc Welding 4. Solid State Welding
 Carbon Arc Welding  Cold Welding
 Shielded Metal Arc  Diffusion Welding
Welding  Explosive Welding
 Flux Cored Arc Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding  Forge Welding
 TIG (or GTAW) Welding  Friction Welding
 MIG (or GMAW) Welding  Hot Pressure Welding
 Plasma Arc Welding  Roll Welding
 Electro slag Welding
 Ultrasonic Welding.
 Electro gas Welding
 Stud Arc Welding. 5. Thermo-Chemical Welding
3. Resistance Welding Processes
 Spot Welding  Thermit Welding
 Seam Welding  Atomic Hydrogen Welding.
 Projection Welding
6. Radiant Energy Welding Processes
 Resistance Butt Welding
 Electron Beam Welding
 Flash Butt Welding
 Percussion Welding  Laser Beam Welding.
 High Frequency
Resistance Welding.
 Allied
Processes
1. Metal Joining or Metal Depositing
Processes
 Soldering
 Brazing
 Braze Welding
 Adhesive Bonding
 Metal Spraying
 Surfacing

2. Thermal Cuting Processes

 Gas Cutting
 Arc Cutting

11
 TERMINOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF WELDING
PROCESS
Edge preparations

12
16
Welding Positions(GTU - Dec. 2011, Nov. 2013)

1. Flat or down hand

position
2. Horizontal position
3. Vertical position
4. Overhead position

17
Base Metal Surface Preparation:

joined must be thoroughly cleaned around the joint
before welding.

The weld area should be free from oil, paint, grease, moisture and
other materials which may produce gases.

Any oxides present in the metal or produced during welding also
interfere with welding of many metals.

Some oxides may be viscous having a density equal to that of the
molten metal. They do not float out of the weld before it
solidifies.

If not removed these oxides may get entrapped in the
weld producing weak joints.
Use of Flux:

Fluxes react with oxides and produce slags which are more
fluid and have lower melting points.

These slags easily float out to the surface of the weld metal.

The molten slag layer on top of the weld metal also helps
prevent contamination of the molten weld metal from
atmospheric oxygen, nitrogen and other gases.

Fluxes may be applied as a dry powder or a paste or as an
ingredient of the coating on the filler metal, depending on the
process used.
Addition of Filler Metal:

Some welds like edge welds in thin sheet metal may be made without use
of a filler material. In most cases, however, filler metal must be melted
and added to fill the gap between the two pieces to be welded and to
provide metal for a fillet.

The selection of the filler metal requires careful consideration to ensure
that the joint produced has the required strength and soundness.
22
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
• A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
• General welding equipment is not very costly.
• Portable welding equipments are available.
• Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
• A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by
welding.
• Welding can join workpieces through spots, as continuous pressure tight
seams, end-to-end and in a number of other configurations.
• Welding can be mechanized.
DISADVANTAGES 0F WELDING
• Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
• Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work-pieces.
• Edge preparation of the workpieces is generally required before welding
them.
• A skilled welder is a must to produce a good welding job.
• Welding heat produces metallurgical changes. The structure of the welded
joint is not same as that of the parent metal.
• A welded joint, for many reasons, needs stress-relief heat-treatment.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF WELDING
• Welding has been employed in Industry as a tool for:
– Regular fabrication of automobile cars, air-crafts, refrigerators, etc.
– Repair and maintenance work, e.g., joining broken parts, rebuilding worn
out components, etc.
• A few important applications of welding are listed below:
1. Aircraft Construction
• Welded engine mounts.
• Turbine frame for jet engine.
• Rocket motor fuel and oxidizer tanks.
• Ducts, fittings, cowling components, etc.
2. Automobile Construction
• Arc welded car wheels
• Steel rear axle housing.
• Frame side rails.
• Automobile frame, brackets, etc.
3.
Bridges
• Section lengths.
• Shop and field assembly of lengths,
etc.
4. Buildings
• Column base plates
• Trusses
• formation of structure, etc.
5. Pressure Vessels and Tanks
• Clad and lined steel plates
• Shell construction
• Joining of nozzles to the shell, etc.
6. Storage Tanks
• Oil, gas and water storage tanks.
7. •RailUnder
Road frame
Equipment Locomotive
• Air receiver
• Engine
• Front and rear hoods,
8. Pipings and Pipelines
• Rolled plate piping
• Open pipe joints,
• Oil gas and gasoline pipe lines, etc.
9. Ships
• Shell frames.
• Deck beams and bulkhead stiffeners.
• Girders to shells
• Bulkhead webs to plating, etc.
10. Trucks and trailers.
11. Machine tool frames, cutting tools and dies.
12. Household and office furniture.
13. Earth moving machinery and cranes.
In addition, arc welding finds following applications in repair and
maintenance work:
14.Repair of broken and damaged components and machinery such as
tools, punches, dies, gears, shears, press and machine tools frames.
15.Hard-facing and rebuilding of worn out or undersized (costly) parts
rejected
during inspection.
16.Fabrication of jigs, fixtures, clamps and other work holding devices.
Arc Welding Process:
• An arc is produced when two current carrying conductors are brought
together and then separated, provided there is sufficient voltage available to
force a flow of current through the air gap.
• The arc produced is associated with a bright glow and intense heat
throughout
its length and may have a temperature of the order of about 5000°C to
5500°C.

An arc suitable for welding may the struck in any one of the following ways :

1. Between a consumable metal electrode and work piece – shielded metal arc
welding, inert gas metal arc welding, submerged arc welding.

2.Between a non-consumable electrode and the work piece – shielded inert gas
carbon arc welding, tungsten inert gas arc welding.

3.Between two non-consumable electrodes – twin carbon

electrode welding, atomic hydrogen
welding.
Arc welding set up
Polarity in Arc Welding:


In a DC circuit the line that carries the current from the source is called the
positive side of the circuit and the line that carries the current back to the
source is referred to as the negative side.


It is found that approximately 60 to 75 percent of the heat is generated at the
positive side of the circuit.

workpiece connected to the positive side of the circuit and the electrode to the
negative side. This type of connection is called straight polarity.


In some welding situations like welding with certain coated ferrous and non-
ferrous electrodes the job is better done with the workpiece connected to the
negative side and the electrode to the positive side of the circuit. This type of
connection is known as reverse polarity.


Reverse polarity is preferred for welding of sheet metal because it produces
shallow penetration. Straight polarity produces deeper penetration and is used
for thicker workpieces.

In an AC situation there is nothing like choice of polarity as the polarity changes
100 times a second due to its very nature. For this reason cast iron and many
non-ferrous metals can be effectively welded using an AC arc.
ARC WELDING PROCESS
• Arc welding process is fusion method of welding that utilizes the high
intensity of the arc generated by the flow of current to melt the
workpieces.
• A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.
PRINCIPLE
• The source of heat for arc welding process is an 'electric arc' generated
between
two electrically conducting materials.
• One of the workpiece material called 'electrode' is connected to one pole of
the electric circuit, while the other workpiece which forms the second
conducting material is connected to the other pole of the circuit.
• When the tip of the electrode material is brought in contact with the
workpiece material and momentarily separated by small distance of 2-4 mm,
an arc can be generated.
• The electrical energy is thus converted to heat energy.
• The high heat of the arc melts the edges of the workpieces.
• Coalescence takes place where the molten metal of the one
workpiece combines with the molten metal of the other workpiece.
• When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two workpieces join together to
form a single component.
• The electrode material can be either a non-consumable material or
a Consumable material.
• The non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, graphite etc.,
serve only to
strike the arc and is not consumed during the welding process.
• Whereas, the consumable electrode which is made of the same material as
that of the workpiece metal helps to strike the arc and at the same time melt
(gets consumed) and combines with the molten metal of the workpiece to
form a weld.
1. METALLIC ARC WELDING (MAW)
• In metallic arc welding an arc is established between work and the
filler metal electrode.
• The intense heat of the arc forms a molten pool in the metal being
welded, and at the same time melts the tip of the electrode.
• As the arc is maintained, molten filler metal from the electrode tip is
transferred across the arc, where it fuses with the molten base metal.
• Arc may be formed with direct or alternating current.
• Petrol or diesel driven generators are widely used for welding in open,
where a normal electricity supply may not be available.
METALLIC ARC WELDING (MAW) ( continued…….)
• A simple transformer however widely employed for A.C. arc welding.
• The transformer sets are cheaper and simple having no maintenance cost
as there are no moving parts.
• With AC system, the covered or coated electrodes are used, whereas with
D.C.
system for cast iron and non-ferrous metals, bare electrodes can be used.
• In order to strike the arc an open circuit voltage of between 60 to 70
volts is required.
• For maintaining the short arc 17 to 25 volts are necessary.
• The current required for welding, however, varies from 10 amp. to 500
amp.
depending upon the class of work to be welded.
2. CARBON ARC
WELDING
• Here the work is connected to negative and the carbon rod or
electrode connected to the positive of the electric circuit.
• Arc is formed in the gap, filling metal is supplied by fusing a rod or wire into
the arc by allowing the current to jump over it and it produces a porous and
brittle weld because of inclusion of carbon particles in the molten metal.
• The voltage required for striking an arc with carbon electrodes is about 30
volts (A.C.) and 40 volts (D.C).
• A disadvantage of carbon arc welding is that approximately twice the current is
required to raise the work to welding temperature as compared with a metal
electrode, while a carbon electrode can only be used economically on D.C.
supply.

Prof. MAYUR S.
MODI
3. FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW OR SMAW)

a. Definition:
• It is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the
workpiece with an electric arc set up between a flux coated electrode and
the workpiece.
• The flux covering decomposes due to arc heat and performs many functions,
like arc stability, weld metal protection, etc.,
• The electrode itself melts and supplies the necessary filler metal.
b. Principle of the process:
• Heat required for welding is obtained from the arc struck between a
coated electrode and the workpiece.
• The arc temperature and thus the arc heat can be increased or decreased
by employing higher or lower arc currents.
• A high current arc with a smaller arc length produces very intense heat.
• The arc melts the electrode end and the job.
• Material droplets are transferred from the electrode to the job, through
the arc, and are deposited along the joint to be welded.
• The flux coating melts, produces a gaseous shield and slag to prevent
atmospheric contamination of the molten weld metal.
c.Striking the arc:
In manual metal arc welding (MMAW), arc between the electrode and the
workpiece is generally struck either by momentarily touching the electrode
with the workpiece and taking it (electrode) a predetermined distance away
from the workpiece by the wrist motion or by scratching the electrode on
the job in the arc of a circle.
d. Electrode holder:
• It can hold the electrode at various angles and energizes it at the same
time.
e. Welding the joint
• Once the arc has been established and the arc length adjusted, the electrode is
inclined to an, angle of approximately 20 degrees with the vertical.
• To achieve comparatively deeper penetration, electrode angle with the vertical
is further reduced.
• The electrode is progressed along the joint at a constant speed, it is lowered, at
the same time, at a rate at which it is melting.
f. Welding Equipment:
– AC or DC welding supply, electrode holder and welding cables.
– Welding electrodes.
• AC transformers and DC generators or rectifiers can be employed for welding
with covered electrodes.
• Both AC and DC power sources produce good quality welds, but depending
upon welding situation one may be preferred over the other.
• The most commonly used power source for AC welding is a transformer.
• A transformer may be operated from the mains on single phase, two phases or
three phases.
• A typical specification for the transformer is as follows:
– Current range up to 600 Amps.
– Open circuit 70 to 100
voltage volts.
Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
• SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
• The equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low.
• This process finds innumerable applications, because of the availability of a
wide variety of electrodes.
• A big range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
• Welding can be carried out in any position with highest weld quality.
Limitations
• Because of the limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating on
it, mechanization is difficult.
• In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one electrode finishes, the
weld is to be progressed with the next electrode. Unless properly cared, a
defect (like slag inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place
where welding is restarted with new electrode.
• The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared to
MIG welding.
• Because of flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment and
other related-defects are more as compared to MIG or TIG welding.
Applications
• Today, almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can be
welded
by this process.
• Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication process and
for maintenance and repair jobs.
• The process finds applications in
– Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications;
– Shipbuilding;
– Pipes and Penstock joining;
– Building and Bridge construction;
– Automotive and Aircraft industry, etc.
 A.C. Welding D.C. Welding
1. At higher currents AC gives a smoother 1. DC arc is more
arc stable.
2. DC is preferred for
2. .Once established the arc can be welding
certain non-ferrous metals
easily maintained and controlled. and alloys.
3. It has lower open circuit
3. It is suitable for welding thicker voltage and therefore is safer.
sections. 4. ARC heat can be regulated
4. AC is easily available. (i.e., through DCRP and DCSP)
5. AC welding power source has no 5. A DC welding equipment
rotating parts. a
isself contained unit. It can be
6. It does not produce noise. operated in fields where
7. It occupies less space power supply is not available
6. DC welding power
8. It is less costly to purchase and source
a transformer-rectifier
is unit
maintain. or a DC generator (motor
9. It possesses high efficiency (0.8). engine
or
10.It consumes less energy per unit weight driven)
of deposited metal.
11.Melting rate of electrode cannot be
controlled in AC as equal heat generates at
electrode.I
Functions of The Electrode Coating:

The coating is consumed at a slower rate than the electrode core wire forming
a
sheath of the unburnt coating material over the arc.
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING
(TIG)
• Tungsten inert gas welding or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is a group of
welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from
an electric arc struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the
workpiece in the presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• A filler metal may be added if required, during the welding process.
• Figure shows the TIG process.

.
Description
• TIG equipment consists of a welding torch in which a non-
consumable tungsten alloy electrode is held rigidly in the collet.
• The diameter of the electrode varies from 0.5 - 6.4 mm.
• TIG welding makes use of a shielding gas like argon or helium to protect
the welding area from atmospheric gases such as oxygen and nitrogen,
otherwise which may cause fusion defects and porosity in the weld
metal.
• The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in
the electrode holder and then impinges on the workpiece.
• Pressure regulator and flow meters are used to regulate the
pressure and
flow of gas from the cylinder.
• Either AC or DC can be used to supply the required current.
Operation
• The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and
other
oxides chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
• The welding current and inert gas supply are turned ON.
• An arc is struck by touching the tip of the tungsten electrode with the
workpiece and instantaneously the electrode is separated from the
workpiece by a small distance of 1.5 - 3 mm such that the arc still
remains between the electrode and the workpiece.
• The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a
small molten metal pool.
• Filler metal in the form of a rod is added manually to the front end
of the
weld pool.
• The deposited filler metal fills and bonds the joint to form a single
piece of metal
• The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the solidifying weld pool for
a few seconds even after the arc is extinguished (shut off)
• This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the solidifying metal
thereby increasing the strength of the joint.
Advantages
• Suitable for thin metals.
• Clear visibility of the arc provides the operator to have a greater
control over the weld.
• Strong and high quality joints are obtained.
• No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean weld
joints.
Disadvantages
• TIG is the most difficult process compared to all the other welding
processes. The welder must maintain short arc length, avoid contact
between electrode and the workpiece and manually feed the filler
metal with one hand while manipulating the torch with the other
hand.
• Tungsten material when gets transferred into the molten
metal contaminates the same leading to a hard and brittle
joint.
• Skilled operator is required.
• Process is slower.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
• Submerged arc welding is a group of arc welding process in which the
workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an electric arc struck
between a bare consumable electrode and workpiece.
• The arc is struck beneath a covering layer of granulated flux.
• Thus, the arc zone and the molten weld pool are protected from atmospheric
contamination by being 'submerged under a blanket of granular flux.
• This gives the name 'submerged arc welding' to the process.
• Figure shows the submerged arc welding process.
Submerged Arc
Welding(SAW)
Description
• The equipment consists of a welding head carrying a bare
consumable electrode and a flux tube.
• The flux tube remains ahead of the electrode, stores the granulated
or powdered flux, and drops the same on the joint to be welded.
• The flux shields and protects the molten weld metal from
atmospheric contamination.
• The electrode which is bare (uncoated) and in the form of wire is
fed continuously through feed rollers.
• It is usually copper plated to prevent rusting and to increase its
electrical
conductivity (since it is submerged under flux).
• The diameter of the electrode ranges from 1.6-8 mm and the
electrode material depends on the type of the work piece metal
being welded.
• The process makes use of either AC or DC for supplying the required
current.
Operation
• Edge preparation is carried out to obtain a sound weld.
• Flux is deposited at the joint to be welded
• Welding current is witched ON.
• An arc is struck between the electrode and the workpiece under the layer
of flux.
• The flux covers the arc thereby increasing the heat near the weld zone.
• This heat melts the filler metal and the workpiece metal forming a molten
weld pool.
• At the same time, a portion of the flux melts and reacts with the molten
weld pool to form a slag.
• The slag floats on the surface providing thermal insulation to the molten
metal
thereby allowing it to cool slowly.
• The welding head is moved along the surface to be welded and the
continuously fed electrode completes the weld.
• The un-melted flux is collected by a suction pipe and reused.
• The layer of slag on the surface of the weld portion is chipped out and the
weld is finished.
• Since the weld pool is covered by flux, solidification of molten metal is slow.
Hence, a backing plate made from copper or steel is used at the bottom of
the joint to support the molten metal until solidification is complete.
Advantages
• High productivity process, due to high heat concentration.
• Weld deposition rate is high due to continuous wire feed. Hence, single
pass welds can be made in thick plates.
• Deep weld penetration.
• Less smoke, as the flux hides the arc. Hence, improved working conditions.
• Can be automated
• Process is best suitable for outdoor works and in areas with relatively high
winds.
• There is no chance of spatter of molten metal, as the arc is beneath the
flux.
Disadvantages
• The invisible arc and the weld zone make the operator difficult to judge
the progress of welding.
• Use of powdered flux restricts the process to be carried only in flat
positions.
• Slow cooling rates may lead to hot cracking defects.
• Need for extensive flux handling.
GAS
WELDING
•Definition
Gas welding is a fusion-welding process.
• It joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen/air and fuel gas
(i.e. acetylene, hydrogen, propane or butane) mixture.
• The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the edges
of the
parts to be welded, generally with the addition of a filler metal.
Principle of gas welding
• When the fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in suitable proportions in a welding
torch and ignited the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficient enough
to melt the edges of the workpiece metals.
• A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.
• The two familiar fuel gases used in gas welding are:
– Mixture of oxygen and acetylene gas -called oxy-acetylene welding process.
– Mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas - called oxy-hydrogen welding process.
• Oxy-acetylene welding is the most versatile and widely used gas welding
process due to its high flame temperature (up to 3500oC) when compared to
that of oxy hydrogen process (up to 2500oC)
Note: Oxygen is not a fuel: It is what chemically combines with the fuel
gas to produce the heat for welding. This is called 'oxidation', but the more
general and commonly used term is 'combustion'.
OXY ACETYLENE
WELDING
Principle of Operation
• When acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the welding
torch and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot
to melt and join the parent metal.
• The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature of about 3200°C and thus can
melt all commercial metals which, during welding, actually flow together to
form a complete bond.
• A filler metal rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to build up
the seam slightly for greater strength.
Description and
Operation
• The equipment consists of two large cylinders: one containing oxygen at
high pressure and the other containing acetylene gas.
• Two pressure regulators fitted on the respective cylinders regulates or controls
the pressure of the gas flowing from the cylinders to the welding torch as per
the requirements.
• The welding torch is used to mix both oxygen and acetylene gas in
proper proportions and burn the mixture at its tip.
• A match stick or a spark lighter may be used to ignite the mixture at
the torch tip.
• The resulting flame at the tip has a temperature ranging from 3200°C -
3500°C
and this heat is sufficient enough to melt the workpiece metal.
• Since a slight gap usually exists between the two workpieces, a filler metal
is used to supply the additional material to fill the gap.
• The filler metal must be of the same material or nearly the same
chemical composition as that of the workpiece material.
• The molten metal of the filler metal combines with the molten metal of
the workpiece and upon solidification form a single piece of metal.
• flux
Flux,material andmay be used during the process. It can be directly applied to
if required,
Advantages of Gas Welding
• It is probably the most versatile process. It can be applied to a wide variety of
manufacturing and maintenance situations.
• Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the metal in the
weld zone.
• The rate of heating and cooling is relatively slow. In some cases, this is
an advantage.
• Since the sources of heat and of filler metal are separate, the welder has
control over filler-metal deposition rates.
• The equipment is versatile, low cost, and usually portable.
• The cost and maintenance of the gas welding equipment is low when
compared to that of some other welding processes.
Advantages of Gas Welding
• Heavy sections cannot be joined economically.
• Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc.
• Fluxes used in certain welding and brazing operations produce fumes that
are irritating to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
• Gas flame takes a long time to heat up the metal than an arc.
• More safety problems are associated with the handling and storing of
gases.
• Acetylene and oxygen gases are rather expensive.
• Flux shielding in gas welding is not so effective as an inert gas shielding in TIG
or MIG welding.
REACTIONS IN GAS WELDING
• When suitable proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed and ignited at
the
torch tip, a flame with a temperature of about 3200°C is produced.
• For complete combustion to take place, two volumes of acetylene is
combined with five volumes of oxygen. The reaction is given below:
2C2H2+502->4C02 + 2H20
• Complete combustion takes place in two stages.
1) First stage combustion
• At the beginning of the process, when the gas torch is ignited, equal
volumes of oxygen and acetylene are issued from the torch to burn in the
atmosphere.
• The reaction occurs due to which the inner cone is visible at the torch tip.
• For example, consider one volume of each oxygen and acetylene.
C2H2 + 02 -> 2CO + H2 + heat
(1/3 of total heat generation)
• This is an exothermic reaction that produces CO and H2 as products of the first
stage of combustion.
2) Second stage combustion
• The second stage combustion involves the combustion of CO and H2 which are
the
products of combustion of first stage.
• Both these products are capable of supporting combustion and hence, utilize
02 from the surrounding atmosphere for combustion.
• The reactions are as follows:
2CO + 02 -> 2C02
and
H2 + 0.5O2->H2O
2/3 of total heat generation
• Carbon monoxide burns and forms carbon dioxide, while hydrogen combines
with
oxygen to form water.
• The combustion is therefore complete and carbon dioxide and water (turned
to steam) are the chief products of combustion.
FLAME
CHARACTERISTICS
Types of flames
a) Neutral Flame
b) Oxidizing Flame
c) Reducing Flame (carburizing
flame)
a) Neutral Flame
• A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes of oxygen
and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip.
(More accurately the oxygen-to-acetylene ratio is 1.1 to 1).
• The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about 3260°C
• The flame has a nicely defined inner cone which is light blue in color. It is
surrounded by an outer flame envelope, produced by the combination of
oxygen in the air and superheated carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases
from the inner cone. This envelope is usually a much darker blue than the
inner cone.
• A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical change on the
molten
metal and,
– Mild therefore, will notStainless
steel oxidize or carburize the metal.
• The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of:
– Cast Iron steel Copper
– Aluminiu
m
b) Oxidizing Flame (O2 : C2H2= 1.5 : 1)
• If, after the neutral flame has been established, the supply of oxygen is
further increased, the result will be an oxidizing flame.
• An oxidizing flame can be recognized by the small cone which is shorter,
much bluer in color and more pointed than that of the neutral flame.
• The outer flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out (disperse)
at the
end.
• An oxidizing flame tends to be hotter than the neutral flame. This is because
of excess oxygen and which causes the temperature to rise as high.
• The excess oxygen, tends to combine with many metals to form hard, brittle,
low
strength oxides.
• Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding area
to have a scummy or dirty appearance.
• For these reasons, an oxidizing flame is of limited use in welding. It is not
used in the welding of steel.
• A slightly oxidizing flame is helpful when welding most
– Copper-base metals
– Zinc-base metals
 c) Reducing Flame
• If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced, the resulting
flame will be a carburizing or reducing flame, i.e., rich in acetylene.
• A reducing flame can be recognized by acetylene feather which exists
between the inner cone and the outer envelope.
• The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is
usually
much brighter in color.
• A reducing flame does not completely consume the available carbon;
therefore, its burning temperature is lower and the leftover carbon is forced
into the molten metal. With iron and steel it produces very hard, brittle
substance known as iron carbide.
• This chemical change makes the metal unfit for many applications in which
the
weld may need to be bent or stretched.
• Metals that tend to absorb carbon should not
be welded with reducing flame.
• A reducing flame has an approximate
temperature of 3038°C.
d) Carburizing flame
• A reducing flame may be distinguished from carburizing flame by the fact
that a carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a reducing flame.
• A carburizing flame is used in the welding of lead and for carburizing
(surface hardening) purposes.
• A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not carburize the metal, rather it
ensures the absence of the oxidizing condition. It is used for welding with low
alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g. non-ferrous) that do not
tend to absorb carbon.
• This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.

To conclude, for most welding operations, the Neutral

Flame is correct, but the other types of flames are
sometimes needed for special welds, e.g., non-ferrous
alloys and high carbon steels may require a reducing
flame, whilst zinc- bearing alloys may need an oxidizing
flame for welding purposes.
Welding Techniques
• Depending upon the ways in which welding rod and the welding torch may
be used, there are two usual techniques in gas welding, namely:
– Leftward technique or Forehand welding method.
– Rightward technique or Back hand welding method.
Leftward Technique
• The welder holds welding torch in his right hand and filler rod in the left
hand.
• The welding flame is directed away from the finished weld, i.e., towards
the un-welded part of the joint. Filler rod, when used, is directed towards
the welded part of the joint (Fig.).
• The weld is commenced on the right-hand side of the seam,
working towards the left-hand side.
• The blowpipe or welding torch is given small sideways movements,
while the filler rod is moved steadily across the seam.
• The filler rod is added using a backward and forward movement of the
rod, allowing the flame to melt the bottom edges of the plate just
ahead of the weld pool.
Leftward Technique (Continued…..)
• Since the flame is pointed in the direction of the Welding, it preheats the
edges
of the joint.
• Good control and a neat appearance are characteristics of the leftward
method. Leftward technique is usually used on relatively thin metals, i.e.,
having thicknesses less than 5 mm.
• When workpiece thickness is over 3 mm, it is necessary to bevel the plate
edges
to produce a V-joint so that good root fusion may be achieved.
• The included angle of V-joint is 80-90°.
• When welding materials over 6.5 mm thick, it is difficult to obtain even
penetration at the bottom of the V and, therefore, the quality of the
weld decreases as plate thickness increases.
• The leftward technique requires careful manipulation to guard against
excessive melting of the base metal, which results in considerable mixing of
base metal and filler metal.
Rightward
•Technique
Here again the welding torch is held in the right hand of the welder and the
filler
rod in the left hand.
• Welding begins at the left-hand end of the joint and proceeds towards the
right, hence the name rightward technique.
• The direction of welding is opposite to that when employing the
leftward technique.
• The torch flame in rightward technique is directed towards the completed
weld and the filler rod remains between the flame and the completed weld
section (Fig.).
• Since the flame is constantly directed on the edges of the V ahead of the weld
puddle (Molten metal pool) , no sidewise motion of the welding torch is
necessary. As a result, a narrower V-groove (30° bevel or 60° included angle)
can be utilized than in leftward welding. This provides a greater control and
reduced welding costs.
• During welding, the filler rod may be moved in
circles (within the puddle) or semicircles (back and
forth around the puddle).
• The rightward technique is one used on heavier or
thicker (above 5 mm) base metals, because in this
technique the heat is concentrated into the metal.
Welds
be with penetrations
achieved in a single of approximately 12 mm
can
pass.
• Rightward technique has got certain advantages over the leftward one,
as
listed below:
– Up to 8.2 mm plate thickness, no bevel is necessary. This saves
the cost of preparation and reduces the consumption of filler
rod.
– For welding bigger thicknesses, where beveling of plate edges
becomes necessary, the included angle of V need be only 60°,
which requires less filler metal against 80°V preparation used in
leftward welding technique.
– The welder's view of the weld pool and the sides and bottom of
the V groove is unobstructed. This results in better control and
higher welding speeds.
– The smaller total volume of deposited metal, as compared to
leftward welding, reduces shrinkage and distortion.
– The weld quality is better than that obtained with the
leftward technique.
– Owing to less consumption of the filler metal, the rightward
technique
involves lower cost of welding than leftward technique.
Welding Torch or Blow Pipe
• Oxygen and the fuel gas having been reduced in pressure by the gas
regulators are fed through suitable hoses to a welding torch which mixes
and controls the flow of gases to the welding nozzle or tip where the gas
mixture is burnt to produce a flame for carrying out gas welding operation.
• There are two types of welding torches, namely:
– High pressure (or equal pressure) type.
– Low pressure (or injector) type.
• High pressure blow-pipes or torches are used with (dissolved) acetylene stored
in cylinders at a pressure of 8 bar.
• Low pressure blow-pipes are used with acetylene obtained from an acetylene
generator at a pressure of 200 mm head of water (approximately 0.02 bar).
Working of a low pressure blow-pipe
• It is termed as a low pressure blow-pipe because it can be operated at
low
acetylene pressure; it is frequently used with acetylene generators.
• As acetylene is of low pressure, it is necessary to use oxygen at a
high pressure (2.5 bar).
• As shown in fig., the oxygen enters the mixing chamber through a passage
located in the centre of the torch. The oxygen passage is surrounded by
the acetylene. The high pressure oxygen passes through a small opening
in the injector nozzle, enters the mixing chamber and pulls (or draws) the
acetylene in after it.
• An advantage of low pressure torch is that small fluctuations in the
oxygen supplied to it will produce a corresponding change in the amount
of acetylene drawn, thereby making the proportions of the two gases
constant while the torch is in operation.
Working of a high pressure blow-
pipe
• In this type of blow-pipe, both the oxygen and acetylene are fed to the blow
pipe at equal pressures and the gases are mixed in a mixing chamber prior to
being fed to the nozzle tip.
• The equal pressure or high pressure type of blow-pipe is the one most
generally used because
– It is lighter and simpler.
– It does not need an injector.
– In operation, it is less troublesome since it does not suffer from backfires
to the same extent.
• To change the power of the welding torch, it is only necessary to change
the
nozzle tip (size) and increase or decrease the gas pressures appropriately.