Ubiquitous

Computing
20XC62
Outline
Introduction to Ubiquitous Computing
• History
• Definition
• Needs
• Phases
• Challenges in Ubiquitous Computing
• Enablers of Ubiquitous Computing
Major trends in Computing

The term ubiquitous computing describes the idea that computers are becoming
pervasive – that is, they are integrated into the world around us.
 Mark Weiser
father of ubiquitous computing

chief scientist at Xerox PARC in the

United States had the original
ubiquitous computing vision (circa
1991)

‘The most profound technologies are those

that disappear. They weave themselves
into the fabric of everyday life until they are
indistinguishable from it’.
Ubiquitous Computing
“Ubiquitous Computing enhances computer use by making many
computers available throughout the physical environment , but making
them effectively invisible to the user.”

• Small cheap , mobile processors and sensors

• In almost everyday objects
• Ex: On your body( wearable computing”)
• Mobile and ubiquitous computing are often referred to as the third generation of
computing where humans continuously interact not with just one but many computing
devices.
• The latter are thereby embedded into the everyday environment of their users in such a
way that users may not even be aware of their interaction with computers

• Pervasive & ubiquitous computing is how computing will be used in the future.

• It is about moving beyond the traditional desktop computing model, into embedding
computing into everyday objects and everyday activities.
• Physical integration:

Integration between computing nodes and the physical world

• Instantaneous interoperation:

Devices interoperate spontaneously in changing environments

Mobile Vs Ubiquitous computing
Ubiquitous Computing: Mobile computing+
intelligent environment
Technology view
• Computers everywhere- embedded into appliances, cars, furniture
• Intelligent environment
• Mobile portable computing devices
• Wireless communication – seamless mobile/fixed
User view
• Invisible- implicit interaction with the environment
• Augmenting human abilities in the context of tasks
Ubiquitous computing system-level
solutions tend to be cross
discipline, and involve the
integration of many disparate
technologies to meet the original
design goals.

One of the key enablers for

pervasive solutions has been the
development of wireless/mobile
platforms running standard
operating systems that are already
widely deployed in the form of
smart phones
Ubiquitous healthcare
Ubi Computing enablers
• Moore’s IC technologies
• Communication technologies
• Material technologies
• Sensors/ Actuators
New Materials
Challenges of Ubiquitous Computing
• -
Physical constraints and system structure
Size and Power
- Wireless communications
- Context
- Self configuration
- Hierarchy and composition
- Volatility of connection

• -
Security and dependability
Security and trust
- Dependability
- Exceptions

• -
Information flow
Network design
- Information overload and relevance
Smart home
Smart City
Smart objects
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

⮚ History of wireless/mobile communications

⮚ Wireless communications and mobility
WIRELESS DEVICES
ELECTRONIC COMPUTING DEVICES & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS
◼ Advances in Technology
◼ more computing power in smaller devices
◼ flat, lightweight displays with low power consumption
◼ user interfaces suitable for small dimensions
◼ higher bandwidths
◼ multiple wireless interfaces: wireless LANs, wireless WANs, home RF, Bluetooth

◼ New Electronic Computing Devices

◼ small, cheap, portable, replaceable and most important of all USABLE!

◼ Technology Trends
◼ devices are aware of their environment and adapt - “location awareness”
◼ devices recognize the location of the user and react appropriately (e.g., call
forwarding, fax forwarding)
MOBILE DEVICES
Pager PDA Laptop
• receive • simple graphical • fully functional
only displays • standard
• tiny • character applications
displays recognition
• simple • simplified WWW
Sensors, text
embedded
controllers messages

Mobile phones Palmtop

• voice, data • tiny keyboard
• simple text • simple versions
displays of standard
applications

performance
WIRELESS AND MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
◼ Definition of mobility:
◼ user mobility: users communicate anytime, anywhere, with anyone ( services will
follow)
◼ device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network

◼ Definition of wireless: Un-tethered, no physical wire attachment

◼ Wireless vs. Mobile Examples
stationary computer
✔ notebook in a hotel
✔ wireless LANs in legacy buildings
✔ ✔ Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

◼ The need for mobility creates the need for integration of wireless
networks into existing fixed network environments:
◼ local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11b/g/a
◼ Internet: Mobile IP extension of the internet protocol IP
◼ wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of 3G and IP
IMPACT OF PORTABILITY ON DEVICE DESIGN/FUNCTIONALITY
◼ Power consumption
◼ battery capacity - limited computing power, low quality/smaller displays,
smaller disks, fewer options (I/O, CD/DVD)
◼ CPU: power consumption ~ CV2f

◼ Device vulnerability
◼ more rugged design required to withstand bumps, weather conditions, etc.

◼ Limited/Simpler User Interfaces

◼ display size
◼ compromise between comfort/usability and portability (keyboard size)
◼ integration of character/voice recognition, abstract symbols

◼ Limited memory
◼ memory limited by size and power
◼ flash-memory or / as alternative
 NETWORKS
◼ Higher loss-rates due to interference
◼ other EM signals, objects in path (multi-path, scattering)
◼ Limited availability of useful spectrum
◼ frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all occupied
◼ Low transmission rates
◼ local area: 2 – 11 Mbit/s, wide area: 9.6 – 19.2 kbit/s
◼ Higher delays, higher jitter
◼ connection setup time for cellular in the second range, several hundred
milliseconds for wireless LAN systems
◼ Lower security, simpler active attacking
◼ radio interface accessible for everyone
◼ base station can be simulated, thus attracting calls from mobile phones
◼ Always shared medium
◼ secure access mechanisms important
LOCATION DEPENDENT SERVICES
◼ Location aware services
◼ what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local environment that
can be used by the user (security and authentication)
◼ Follow-on services
◼ automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the current
location
◼ Information services
◼ push: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
◼ pull: e.g., where is the Sarah Lee New York Cheese Cake?
◼ Support services
◼ caches, intermediate results, state information, etc., follow the mobile device through
the fixed network
◼ Privacy
◼ who should gain knowledge about the location of the user/device
HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT: ANALOG CELLULAR SERVICES

◼ Two major technological improvements made the cellular concept a reality:

◼ the microprocessor -> allowed for complex algorithms to be implemented, and
◼ digital control links between base station and mobile unit -> allowed for increased control of
the system so more sophisticated services could be made available:
◼ hand-overs
◼ digital signaling
◼ automatic location of mobile device

◼ 1979 - Analog Mobile Phone System (AMPS) in US

◼ 1991 - Specification of DECT
◼ Digital European Cordless Telephone (today: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications)
◼ 1880-1900MHz, ~100-500m range, 120 duplex channels, 1.2Mbit/s data transmission, voice
encryption, authentication, up to several 10000 user/km2, used in more than 40 countries
◼ 1992 - Start of GSM
◼ fully digital, 900MHz, 124 channels
◼ automatic location, hand-over, cellular
HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT: DIGITAL WIRELESS SERVICES
◼ 1996 - HiperLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network)
◼ ETSI, standardization of type 1: 5.15 - 5.30GHz, 23.5Mbit/s
◼ recommendations for type 2 and 3 (both 5GHz) and 4 (17GHz) as wireless ATM-networks
(up to 155Mbit/s)
◼ 1997 - Wireless LANs
◼ many products with proprietary extensions out there already
◼ IEEE-Standard, 2.4 - 2.5GHz, 2Mbit/s
◼ 1998 - Specification of GSM successors
◼ UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) as the European proposal for IMT-2000
◼ 1998 - Specification for next generation CDMA starts
◼ Qualcomm starts work on wideband CDMA spec.
◼ 1999 - Specificatipn of IEEE802.11b
◼ increased BW to 11Mbit/s
◼ 2000 - Bluetooth Specification
◼ 1Mbit/s specification, single cell
◼ Work on 10Mbit/s spec. with multi cell capability initiated
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

❑ Frequencies ❑ Multiplexing

❑ Signals ❑ Spread spectrum

❑ Modulation
❑ Antenna
❑ Signal propagation
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

Mobile phones operate in this

frequency range
FREQUENCIES FOR COMMUNICATION

twiste coax cable optical transmission

d pair

1 10 100 1m 10 100 1 μm
Mm km m 300 MHz mm μm 300
300 30 3 30 3 THz
Hz kHz MHz GHz THz
V L M HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible UV
L F F light
F

◼ VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

◼ LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
◼ MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
◼ HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
◼ VHF = Very High Frequency

◼ Frequency and wave length: λ = c/f

◼ wave length λ, speed of light c ≅ 3x108m/s, frequency f
 FREQUENCY REGULATIONS
◼ Frequencies from 9KHz to 300 MHZ in high demand (especially VHF: 30-
300 MHZ)
◼ Two unlicensed bands
◼ Industrial, Science, and Medicine (ISM): 2.4 GHz
◼ Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII): 5.2 GHz

◼ Different agencies license and regulate

◼ www.fcc.gov - US
◼ www.etsi.org - Europe
◼ www.wpc.dot.gov.in - India Wireless Planning and Coordination(WPC)

◼ www.itu.org - International co-ordination

◼ Regional, national, and international issues

◼ Procedures for military, emergency, air traffic control, etc
MASSIVE WIRELESS INFRASTRUCTURE
 WIRELESS FREQUENCY ALLOCATION
◼ Radio frequencies range from 9KHz to 400 GHZ (ITU)(Internal
Telecommunication Union)
◼ Microwave frequency range
◼ 1 GHz to 40 GHz
◼ Directional beams possible
◼ Suitable for point-to-point transmission
◼ Used for satellite communications
◼ Radio frequency range
◼ 30 MHz to 1 GHz
◼ Suitable for omnidirectional applications
◼ Infrared frequency range
◼ Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
◼ Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within confined areas
 FREQUENCIES FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION
◼ VHF/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
◼ simple, small antenna for cars
◼ deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
◼ SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite
communication
◼ small antenna, focusing
◼ large bandwidth available
◼ Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
◼ some systems planned up to EHF
◼ limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
◼ weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy
Service Frequency Band

FM broadcast 88-108 MHz

Television 50 - 300 MHz

Cellular Mobile Radio 896-901 MHz 840-935 MHz

Satellite Communication 5.925-6.425 GHz 3.7- 4.2 GHz

 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

Anten
Anten
na
na
Transmitt Receiv
er er
◼ Wireless communication systems consist of:
◼ Transmitters
◼ Antennas: radiates electromagnetic energy into air
◼ Receivers
◼ In some cases, transmitters and receivers are on same
device, called transceivers.
 TRANSMITTERS
Antenn
a
Amplifi Mixe Filte Amplifi
er r r er
Source

Oscillator Transmitter

Suppose you want to generate a signal that is sent at 900 MHz

and the original source generates a signal at 300 MHz.
•Amplifier - strengthens the initial signal
•Oscillator - creates a carrier wave of 600 MHz
•Mixer - combines signal with oscillator and produces 900 MHz
(also does modulation, etc)
•Filter - selects correct frequency
•Amplifier - Strengthens the signal before sending it
ANTENNA

◼ An electrical conductor or system of conductors used for

radiating electromagnetic energy into space or for collecting
electromagnetic energy from the space
◼ Antenna radiates power in all directions
◼ but typically does not radiate equally in all directions
◼ Ideal antenna is one that radiates equal power in all direction
◼ called an isotropic antenna
◼ all points with equal power are located on a sphere with the antenna
as its center
◼ Omni directional
◼ Directional
SIGNALS

◼ Physical representation of data

◼ Function of time and location
◼ Signal parameters: represents the value of signal
◼ Signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift ϕ
◼ sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier
s(t) = At sin(2 π ft t + ϕt)
◼ Classification
◼ continuous time/discrete time
◼ continuous values/discrete values
◼ analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
◼ digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
SIGNALS II
▪ Different representations of signals
▪ amplitude (time domain)
▪ frequency spectrum (frequency domain)

▪ phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase ϕ in polar coordinates)

A A Q=M
[V] [V] sin ϕ

t[s ϕ
]
I= M
cos ϕ
ϕ f
[Hz]
▪ Composite signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier
transformation
▪ Bandwidth limitation
▪ Digital signals need
▪ infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
▪ modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)
PROPAGATION MODES
SIGNAL PROPAGATION RANGES
◼ Transmission range
◼ communication possible
◼ low error rate
sender
◼ Detection range
◼ detection of the signal possible transmission

distance
◼ no communication possible
detection
◼ Interference range interference
◼ signal may not be detected
◼ signal adds to the background
noise
Transmission range: Within a certain radius of the sender
transmission is possible, i.e., a receiver receives the signals with an
error rate low enough to be able to communicate and can also act as
sender.

Detection range: Within a second radius, detection of the

transmission is
possible, i.e., the transmitted power is large enough to differ from
background noise. However, the error rate is too high to establish
communication.

Interference range: Within a third even larger radius, the sender may
interfere with other transmission by adding to the background noise. A
receiver will not be able to detect the signals, but the signals may
disturb other signals
MULTIPATH PROPAGATION

◼ A Line of Sight (LoS) connection may not exist between Tx and Rx

◼ The signal can get from the Tx to the Rx via a number of different

propagation paths.

◼ The signal can get from the Tx to the Rx by being reflected at or

diffracted by different Interacting Objects (IOs) in the environment:

houses, mountains (for outdoor environments), windows, walls, etc.

◼ The number of these possible propagation paths is very large

REFLECTION

◼ Reflection – wave strikes a

surface and is bounced
back.
◼ Law of Reflection: angle of
incidence = angle of reflection
◼ Assumes smooth surface.
◼ Measured from normal.

ct of
A n i de

n
in

io
fle le
gl nc
c

re g
e e

An
of
SPECULAR VS. DIFFUSE REFLECTION

◼ Specular Reflection
◼ Mirror-like
◼ Retains image
◼ Diffuse Reflection
◼ Energy reflects but not image.
 REFRACTION

Refraction – change in
wave’s direction as it
passes from one medium
to another.
Due to differences in speed
of wave.
Index of refraction (n) –
measure of how much a
wave’s speed is reduced
in a particular medium.
Most frequently applied to
light.
 Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of a wave around
an object. Diffraction and refraction both cause
waves to bend. The difference is that refraction
occurs when waves pass through an object,
while diffraction occurs when waves pass
around an object.
All waves,
including water waves,
sound waves, and light
waves, can be diffracted.

Diffraction can cause

Cooke/Alamy
ocean waves to change

Richard
direction as they pass
 Interference

Interference is the process

of two or more waves
overlapping and combining to
form a new wave.
This new wave exists only
while the two original waves
continue to overlap. Two
waves can combine through
either constructive
interference or destructive
interference.
WAVE INTERFERENCE

◼Waves can move through each other, which means

that they can be in the same place at the same
time!
◼When waves are at the same place at the same
time, the amplitudes of the waves simply add
together and this is really all we need to know!
 CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

◼ If we add these two waves together, point-by-point,

we end up with a new wave that looks pretty much
like the original waves but its amplitude is larger.
◼ This situation, where the resultant wave is bigger
than either of the two original, is called
constructive interference. The waves are
adding together to form a bigger wave.
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
 DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
◼Now what happens if we add these waves
together?
◼When the first wave is up, the second wave is
down and the two add to zero.
◼ In fact, at all points the two waves exactly cancel each
other out and there is no wave left!
◼The sum of two waves can be less than either
wave, alone, and can even be zero. This is called
destructive interference.
 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

◼ When the peaks of the waves line up, there is

constructive interference. Often, this is
described by saying the waves are “in-phase”.

.
 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

◼ Similarly, when the peaks of one wave line up with

the valleys of the other, there is destructive interference
and the waves are said to be “out-of-phase”.
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
◼ Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time 🡺 interference with
“neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
◼ The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted 🡺 distorted signal

depending on the phases of the different parts

◼ Can be eliminated with the help of an equalizer( Training sequence…

Adaptive methods)
◼ Delay spread: Due to the finite speed of light, signals travelling along
different paths with different lengths arrive at the receiver at different
times
◼ Typical values for delay spread are approximately 3 μs in cities, up to 12

μs can be observed. GSM, for example, can tolerate up to 16 μs of delay

spread, i.e., almost a 5 km path difference
INTER SYMBOL INTERFERENCE(ISI)
◼ The major consequence is signal dispersion which leads to Inter Symbol

Interference (ISI) at the Rx.

◼ MPCs carrying information from bit k, and MPCs, carrying contributions from bit

k + 1 arrive at the Rx at the same time, and interfere with each other

◼ Assuming that no special measures are taken, this ISI leads to errors that cannot

be eliminated by simply increasing the transmit power, called irreducible errors.

◼ Effects like attenuation, scattering, diffraction, and
refraction all happen simultaneously and are frequency
and time dependent

◼ Together with the direct transmission from a sender to a

receiver, the propagation effects lead to one of the
most severe radio channel impairments
◼ ISI and delay spread already occur in the case of fixed radio
transmitters and receivers, the situation is even worse if receivers,
or senders, or both, move.
◼ Then the channel characteristics change over time, and the paths
a signal can travel along vary.
◼ The power of the received signal changes considerably over time.
◼ These quick changes in the received power are also called short-
term fading.
 FADING
◼ A simple Rx cannot distinguish between the different Multi Path
Components (MPCs); it just adds them up, so that they interfere
with each other.
◼ The interference between them can be constructive or
destructive, depending on the phases of the MPCs,
◼ The phases, in turn, depend on the position of the Mobile Station
(MS) and the IOs.
◼ For this reason, the interference, and thus the amplitude of the
total signal, changes with time if either TX, RX, or IOs is moving.
◼ This effect – namely, the changing of the total signal amplitude
due to interference of the different MPCs – is small-scale fading
 EFFECTS OF MOBILITY
◼ Channel characteristics change over time and location
◼ signal paths change
◼ different delay variations of different signal parts
◼ different phases of signal parts

◼🡺 quick changes in the power received

long term
(short term fading) power
fading

◼ Additional changes in
◼ distance to sender t
short term fading
◼ obstacles further away

◼🡺 slow changes in the average power

received (long term fading)
MULTIPLEXING AND SPREAD SPECTRUM
MULTIPLEXING

◼ A fundamental mechanism in communication system and

networks
◼ Enables multiple users to share a medium
◼ For wireless communication, multiplexing can be carried
out in four dimensions: space, time, frequency and code
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

◼ A channel is given the whole bandwidth for a certain amount

of time
◼ All senders use the same frequency, but at different point of time
Drawbacks:
◼ If two transmissions overlap in time, this is called co-channel
interference.
◼ To avoid this type of interference, precise synchronization between
different senders is necessary.
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

◼ Frequency domain is subdivided into several non-overlapping frequency

bands
◼ Each channel is assigned its own frequency band (with guard spaces in
between)
◼ Assigning a separate frequency for each possible communication scenario
would be a tremendous waste of frequency resources
◼ mobile communication typically takes place for only a few minutes at a time.
◼ Fixed assignment of a frequency to a sender makes the scheme very
inflexible and limits the number of senders.
FREQUENCY AND TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING COMBINED
◼ A channel use a certain frequency for a certain amount of time and
then uses a different frequency at some other time
◼ Now guard spaces are needed both in the time and in the frequency dimension.
◼ This scheme is more robust against frequency selective interference, i.e.,
interference in a certain small frequency band. A channel may use this band
only for a short period of time.
◼ Additionally, this scheme provides some (weak) protection against tapping, as
in this case the sequence of frequencies a sender uses has to be known to
listen in to a channel.
◼ The mobile phone standard GSM uses this combination of frequency and time
division multiplexing for transmission between a mobile phone and a so-called
base station
◼ Disadvantage of this scheme is again the necessary coordination between
different senders.
FREQUENCY AND TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
◼ Channels are assigned on the basis of “space” (but operate on same
frequency)
◼ The principle used by the old analog telephone system: each subscriber
is given a separate pair of copper wires to the local exchange.
◼ The assignment makes sure that the transmission do not interfere with
each (with a guard band in between)
◼ In wireless transmission, SDM implies a separate sender for each
communication channel with a wide enough distance between senders.
◼ FM radio stations where the transmission range is limited to a certain
region any radio stations around the world can use the same frequency
without interference
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Using SDM, obvious problems arise if two or more
channels were established within the same space, for
example, if several radio stations want to broadcast in
the same city.

Solution: One of the following multiplexing schemes

must be used (frequency, time, or code division
multiplexing).
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
 . CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA) – CONT.
1
Do not confuse
CDMA (conflict- Frequency
free) with
CSMA (contention-
based)

User 1
User 2
CSMA = carrier sense
multiple access ...

User n
Time

Code
• Separate (unique) code per user
• Code sequences are orthogonal
=> different users can use same frequency simultaneously
• Some 2G systems use CDMA / Most of 3G systems use CDMA
ORTHOGONAL CODES

◼ Two Codes are orthogonal if Exclusive OR operation

on them yields equal number of 0’s and 1’s.
◼ Orthogonal (Walsh) Code generation recursively:

0 0 0
H1 H1 00 0 0 1
H2 0
H1 H1 01 0 1 0
=
0 1 1
0 1 1
0
◼ Almost orthogonal
◼ Short PN (Pseudo-Noise)
◼ Long PN
◼ Walsh codes used in forward (down, base-station to
mobile) link. PN sequences used in reverse (up)
link for transmission and scrambling at down link.
 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

◼ separation of channels achieved by assigning each channel

its own code
◼ guard spaces are realized by having distance in code space
(e.g. orthogonal codes)
◼ transmitter can transmit in the same frequency band at the
same time, but have to use different code-Orthogonal Codes
◼ Provides good protection against interference and tapping
◼ but the receivers have relatively high complexity
◼ has to know the code and must separate the channel with user
data from the noise composed of other transmission
◼ has to be synchronized with the transmitter
SPREAD SPECTRUM
 SPECTRUM LIMITATIONS

Frequency bands
◼ The frequency assignment for different wireless services is regulated by ITU
◼ Low carrier frequencies usually propagate more easily so that a single BS
can cover a large area
◼ Absolute bandwidths are smaller, and also the frequency reuse is not as
efficient as it is at higher frequencies
◼ For this reason, low frequency bands are best for services that require
good coverage, but have a small aggregate rate of information that has to
be exchanged
◼ EX: Paging and TV
◼ For cellular systems, low carrier frequencies are ideal for covering large
regions with low user density
◼ For cellular systems with high user densities, as well as for WLANs, higher
carrier frequencies are usually more desirable
 FREQUENCY REUSE
◼ Frequency Reuse in Regulated Spectrum : Since spectrum
is limited, the same spectrum has to be used for different
wireless connections in different locations, leading to
Spectral efficiency
◼ Frequency Reuse in Unregulated Spectrum: Spread
spectrum techniques to reduce the interference in ISM
band (2.4 -5 GHZ)
◼ Dynamic frequency assignment – Cognitive Radio
 SPREAD SPECTRUM
◼ A signal that occupies a bandwidth of B, is spread out
to occupy a bandwidth of Bss
◼ All signals are spread to occupy the same bandwidth
Bss
◼ Signals are spread with different codes so that they
can be separated at the receivers.
◼ Signals can be spread in the frequency domain or in
the time domain.

6.86
 SPREAD SPECTRUM
◼Spreading the bandwidth needed to transmit
data
◼Spread signal has the same energy as the
original signal, but is spread over a larger
frequency range
◼provides resistance to narrowband interference
◼Several users can independently use the same
higher bandwidth with very little interference
Spread Spectrum
SPREAD SPECTRUM

◼What can be gained from apparent waste of spectrum?

◼ Immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath
distortion
◼ Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
◼ Several users can independently use the same higher
bandwidth with very little interference
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

6.90
Frequency selection in FHSS

6.91
SPREAD SPECTRUM
SPREAD SPECTRUM

◼ Input is fed into a channel encoder

◼ Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth

◼ Signal is further modulated using sequence of digits

◼ Spreading code or spreading sequence
◼ Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random number generator

◼ Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of signal to

be transmitted

◼ On receiving end, digit sequence is used to demodulate the

spread spectrum signal
◼ Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover data
FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM (FHSS)
◼ Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio
frequencies
◼ A number of channels allocated for the FH signal
◼ Channel sequence dictated by spreading code
◼ Width of each channel corresponds to bandwidth of input signal
◼ Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals
◼ Transmitter operates in one channel at a time
◼ Bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme
◼ At each successive interval, a new carrier frequency is selected
◼ Receiver, hopping between frequencies in synchronization with
transmitter, picks up message
◼ Dwell time- The amount of time spent on each frequency hop
FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM (FHSS)
FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM
An Example of Frequency Hopping Pattern

Frequency

Time
• Slow Hopping: In slow hopping, multiple bits are
transmitted on a specific frequency or same frequency.
• Fast Hopping: In fast hopping, individual bits are split and
then transmitted on different frequencies.
SLOW AND FAST FHSS
t b

user data

0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1

td t
f

f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1

tb: bit period td: dwell time

 FHSS (FREQUENCY HOPPING)
◼ Advantages
◼ frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
◼ Highly resistant to narrowband interference because the signal hops
to a different frequency band.
◼ simple implementation
◼ uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
◼ Highly secure.
◼ Its signals are very difficult to intercept if the frequency-hopping
pattern is not known; that's why it is preferred in Military services
◼ Disadvantages
◼ Not as robust as DSSS
◼ supports a lower data rate of 3 Mbps as compared to the 11 Mbps
data rate supported by DSSS.
◼ Needs complex frequency synthesizers.
◼ supports the lower coverage range due to the high SNR requirement
at the receiver.
APPLICATIONS

• The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS is used in wireless

local area networks (WLAN) standard for Wi-Fi.
• FHSS is also used in the wireless personal area networks (WPAN)
standard for Bluetooth.
◼ Bluetooth, which performs 1,600 hops per second and uses 79 hop
carriers equally spaced with 1 MHz in the 2.4 GHz ISM band
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM (DSSS)
◼ Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in
the transmitted signal
◼ Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency
band
◼ Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
◼ One technique combines digital information stream with
the spreading code bit stream using exclusive-OR
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM (DSSS)
◼ Takes a user bit sequence and performs an XOR with, what is known
as, chipping sequence
◼ Each user bit duration tb
◼ chipping sequence has smaller pulses tc
◼ If chipping sequence is generated properly it may appear as random
noise
◼ sometimes called pseudo-noise (PN)
◼ tb/tc is known as the spreading factor
◼ determines the bandwidth of the resultant signal
◼ Used by 802.11b

◼ civil applications use spreading factors between 10 and 100,

military applications use factors of up to 10,000.
 DSSS (DIRECT SEQUENCE)
◼ XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping
sequence)
◼ many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
◼ Advantages tb

◼ reduces frequency selective user data

fading 0 1 XOR
tc
◼ in cellular networks chipping
sequence
◼ base stations can use the 0 1 1 0 10 1 0 1 1 010 1 =
same frequency range
resulting
◼ several base stations can signal
detect and recover the signal 0 1 1 0 10 1 1 0 0 101 0

◼ soft handover tb: bit period

tc: chip period
◼ Disadvantages
◼ precise power control necessary
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM (DSSS)
Chip Sequence: 101100

Spreading Sequence: 1 -1 1 1 -1 -1

Transmitted bits, data =

1 -1 1 1 -1 -1
1:
Transmitted bits, data =
-1 1 -1 -1 1 1
0:

No transmission: 000000
◼ Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is the alternative
spread spectrum method separating by code and not by
frequency.
◼ In the case of IEEE 802.11DSSS, spreading is achieved
using the 11-chip Barker sequence (+1, –1, +1, +1, –1,+1,
+1, +1, –1, –1, –1).
◼ The key characteristics of this method are its robustness
against interference and its insensitivity to multipath
propagation (time delay spread).
◼ Implementation is more complex compared to FHSS
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
◼Also known as code division multiple access
◼An advanced technique that allows multiple
devices to transmit on the same frequencies at the
same time
◼Each mobile device is assigned a unique 64-bit
code
CODE-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)
◼ A code for a certain user should have a good
autocorrelation and should be orthogonal to other codes.
◼ Orthogonal in code space has the same meaning as in
standard space (i.e., the three dimensional space).
◼ Basic Principles of CDMA
◼ D = rate of data signal
◼ Break each bit into k chips
◼ Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern

◼ Chip data rate of new channel = kD

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (CONTINUED)

◼ To send a binary 1, a mobile device transmits the unique

code
◼ To send a binary 0, a mobile device transmits the inverse
of the code
◼ To send nothing, a mobile device transmits zeros
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (CONTINUED)

◼ Receiver gets summed signal, multiplies it by receiver

code, adds up the resulting values
◼ Interprets as a binary 1 if sum is near +64
◼ Interprets as a binary 0 if sum is near -64
CDMA - EXAMPLE
◼ Sender A
◼ sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: “0“= -1, “1“= +1)

◼ sending signal As = Ad * Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)

◼ Sender B
◼ sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)

◼ sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)

◼ Both signals superimpose in space

◼ interference neglected (noise etc.)

◼ As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)

◼ Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A

◼ apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)
◼ Ae = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) ∙ Ak = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6

◼ result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was „1“

◼ receiving B
◼ Be = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) ∙ Bk = -2 + 0 + 0 - 2 - 2 + 0 = -6, i.e. „0“
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (CONTINUED)

◼ For simplicity, assume 8-bit code

◼ Example
◼ Three different mobile devices use the following codes:
◼ Mobile A: 11110000
◼ Mobile B: 10101010
◼ Mobile C: 00110011
◼ Assume Mobile A sends a 1, B sends a 0, and C sends a 1
◼ Signal code: 1-chip = +N volt; 0-chip = -N volt
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (CONTINUED)
◼ Example (continued)
◼ Three signals transmitted:
◼ Mobile A sends a 1, or 11110000, or ++++----
◼ Mobile B sends a 0, or 01010101, or -+-+-+-+
◼ Mobile C sends a 1, or 00110011, or --++--++

◼ Summed signal received by base station: -1, +1, +1, +3, -3, -1, -
1, +1
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (CONTINUED)

◼ Example (continued)
◼ Base station decode for Mobile A:
◼ Signal received: -1, +1, +1, +3, -3, -1, -1, +1
◼ Mobile A’s code: +1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1, -1
◼ Product result: -1, +1, +1, +3, +3, +1, +1, -1
◼ Sum of Products: +8
◼ Decode rule: For result near +8, data is binary 1
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (CONTINUED)

◼ Example (continued)
◼ Base station decode for Mobile B:

◼ Signal received: -1, +1, +1, +3, -3, -1, -1, +1

◼ Mobile B’s code: +1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1
◼ Product result: -1, -1, +1, -3, -3, +1, -1, -1
◼ Sum of Products: -8
◼ Decode rule: For result near -8, data is binary 0
 ACCESS METHOD CDMA

◼Disadvantages:
◼ higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into
the medium and start receiving if there is a signal)
◼ all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
◼Advantages:
◼ all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
◼ huge code space (e.g. 264) compared to frequency space
◼ interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
◼ forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
 Spread Spectrum for CDMA
■ Concept of spread spectrum:
■ Pseudorandom sequence c(t) phase-modulates data-modulated carrier of s(t),
producing m(t)
■ m(t) occupies broader bandwidth and has lower peak power than s(t)
where:
■ s(t) - original signal / m(t) – xmitted signal derived fr. s(t) by spreading
■ c(t) – code signal (a parameter for spreading)
■ Results in better resistance to interference
Transmitter
Original Spreading
Xmitted
digital signal spread signal
s(t) m(t)

Power Power
Code
c(t)

(Modified by
Frequency Frequency LTL)
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
■ Concept of DSSS for CDMA
■Pseudorandom sequence c(t) phase-modulates
data-modulated carrier of s(t), producing m(t)
■m(t) occupies broader bandwidth & has lower peak power
than s(t)
Transmitter Receiver
Spreading De-
Original spreading Recreated
Xmitted
digital signal spread signal digital signal
s(t) m(t) s(t)

Power Power Power

Code Code
c(t) c(t)

Frequency Frequency c(t) is Frequency

Synchronized!
(Modified by
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
■ Concept of FHSS for CDMA
■Pseudorand. hopping pattern sequence changes
freq. of digital radio signal across broad freq. band
in random way
■Radio xmitter freq. hops fr. channel to channel in
predetermined pseudorandom way (cf. next slide)
■m(t) occupies broader bandwidth & has lower peak power
Transmitter Receiver
than s(t)
Spreading De-
spreading Recreated
Original Xmit (“dehopped”)
digital signal spread signal digital signal

Power Hopping pattern Power Hopping pattern Power

Hopp. patt.
Synchro-
nized!
Frequency Frequency Frequency
(Modified by
PN SEQUENCES

◼ PN generator produces periodic sequence that appears to be

random
◼ PN Sequences
◼ Generated by an algorithm using initial seed
◼ Sequence isn’t statistically random but will pass many test of
randomness
◼ Sequences referred to as pseudorandom numbers or pseudonoise
sequences
◼ Unless algorithm and seed are known, the sequence is impractical to
predict
ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

◼ key idea: use carrier waves that are orthogonal

◼ spectra of carrier frequencies can overlap without causing
interference
◼ old guard band spacing not necessary
◼ What does it mean for sine waves to be orthogonal to
each other?
 OFDM: a form of MultiCarrier Modulation.
• Different symbols are transmitted over
different subcarriers
• Spectra overlap, but signals are orthogonal.
• Example: Rectangular waveform -> Sine
spectrum
Fixed / Wireline:
• ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
Mobile / Radio:
• Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
• Digital Video Broadcasting - Terrestrial (DVB-T)
• Hiperlan II
• Wireless 1394
• 4G
◼ Dot product of two vectors x = (x1; , , , , ; xn) and y
=(y1; , , , ,; yn)
◼ sum of products