Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals

Chapter 1 – Digital
Computers and
Information
Charles Kime & Thomas Kaminski
© 2004 Pearson Education, Inc.
Terms of Use
(Hyperlinks are active in View Show mode)
Overview

▪ Digital Systems and Computer Systems

▪ Information Representation
▪ Number Systems [binary, octal and hexadecimal]
▪ Arithmetic Operations
▪ Base Conversion
▪ Decimal Codes [BCD (binary coded decimal),
parity]
▪ Gray Codes
▪ Alphanumeric Codes
Digital System

▪ Takes a set of discrete information inputs and discrete

internal information (system state) and generates a set
of discrete information outputs.

Discret Discret
e
Inputs eInformatio
n
Processin Discret
g
Syste eOutput
m s

System
State
Types of Digital Systems

▪ No state present
• Combinational Logic System
• Output = Function(Input)
▪ State present
• State updated at discrete times
=> Synchronous Sequential System
• State updated at any time
=>Asynchronous Sequential System
• State = Function (State, Input)
• Output = Function (State)
or Function (State, Input)
 Digital System Example:

A Digital Counter (e. g., odometer):

Count
Up Rese 0 0 1 3 5 6 4
t
Inputs: Count Up, Reset
Outputs: Visual Display
State: "Value" of stored digits

Synchronous or Asynchronous?
 A Digital Computer Example

Inputs:
Outputs: CRT,
Keyboard,
LCD, modem,
mouse, modem,
speakers
microphone
Synchronous or
Asynchronous?
Signal

▪ An information variable represented by physical

quantity.
▪ For digital systems, the variable takes on discrete
values.
▪ Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent
values in digital systems.
▪ Binary values are represented abstractly by:
• digits 0 and 1
• words (symbols) False (F) and True (T)
• words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)
• and words On and Off.
▪ Binary values are represented by values or ranges of
values of physical quantities
Signal Examples Over Time

Tim
e Continuous
in value &
Analo
time
g
Digita Discrete in
l value &
Asynchrono continuous in
us time
Discrete in
Synchrono
value & time
us
Signal Example – Physical Quantity:
Voltage

Threshold
Region
Binary Values: Other Physical
Quantities
▪ What are other physical quantities
represent 0 and 1?
• CPU Voltage
• Disk Magnetic Field Direction
• CD Surface Pits/Light
• Dynamic RAM Electrical Charge
 Number Systems –
Representation
▪ Positive radix, positional number systems
▪ A number with radix r is represented by a
string of digits:
An - 1An - 2 … A1A0 . A- 1 A- 2 … A- m + 1 A- m
in which 0 ≤ Ai < r and . is the radix point.
▪ The string of digits represents the power series:

(∑ r )+(∑ r)
i=n-1 j=-1
(Number)r = i j
Ai Aj
i= j=-m
(Integer
0 Portion) + (Fraction Portion)
 Number Systems – Examples

General Decimal Binary

Radix (Base) r 10 2
Digits 0 => r - 1 0 => 9 0 => 1
0 r0 1 1
1 r1 10 2
2 r2 100 4
3 r3 1000 8
Powers of 4 r4 10,000 16
r5 100,000 32
Radix 5 r -1 0.1 0.5
-1 r -2 0.01 0.25
-2 r -3 0.001 0.125
-3 r -4 0.0001 0.0625
-4 r -5 0.00001 0.03125
-5
Special Powers of 2

▪ 210 (1024) is Kilo, denoted

"K"
▪ 220 (1,048,576) is Mega, denoted "M"

▪ 230 (1,073, 741,824)is Giga, denoted

"G"
Positive Powers of 2

▪ Useful for Base Conversion

Exponent Value Exponent Value
0 1 11 2,048
1 2 12 4,096
2 4 13 8,192
3 8 14 16,384
4 16 15 32,768
5 32 16 65,536
6 64 17 131,072
7 128 18 262,144
8 256 19 524,288
9 512 20 1,048,576
10 1024 21 2,097,152
Converting Binary to Decimal

▪ To convert to decimal, use decimal arithmetic

to form Σ (digit × respective power of 2).
▪ Example:Convert 110102 to N10:
Converting Decimal to Binary
▪ Method 1
• Subtract the largest power of 2 (see slide 14) that gives
a positive remainder and record the power.
• Repeat, subtracting from the prior remainder and
recording the power, until the remainder is zero.
• Place 1’s in the positions in the binary result
corresponding to the powers recorded; in all other
positions place 0’s.
▪ Example: Convert 62510 to N2
Commonly Occurring Bases

Name Radix Digit

Binar 2 s
0,
y
Octa 8 1
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,
l
Decimal 1 7
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,
Hexadecima 01 9
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
▪ The lsix letters (in
6
addition to the
10
integers) in hexadecimal represent:
Numbers in Different Bases

▪ Good idea to memorize!

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
(Base 10) (Base 2) (Base 8) (Base 16)
0 0000 0 0
0 0000
0 0 0
0
1 0001
1 01 01
0
2 00011
0 02 02
0
3 0010 03 03
0
4 0010
0 04 04
0
5 00110
1 05 05
0
6 00111 06 06
0
7 0100 17 07
0
8 0100
0 11 0 08
1
9 0101
1 1 90
11
0 010
0 1 12 A 0
1 01100
1 13 B 0
1
2 01101 14 C 0
1
3 01110 15 D 0
1
4 01111 16 E 0
1
5 1000 27 F 1
6 0 0 0
Conversion Between Bases

▪ Method 2
▪ To convert from one base to another:
1) Convert the Integer Part
2) Convert the Fraction Part
3) Join the two results with a radix point
Conversion Details

▪ To Convert the Integral Part:

Repeatedly divide the number by the new radix and
save the remainders. The digits for the new radix
are the remainders in reverse order of their
computation. If the new radix is > 10, then convert
all remainders > 10 to digits A, B, …
▪ To Convert the Fractional Part:
Repeatedly multiply the fraction by the new radix and
save the integer digits that result. The digits for the
new radix are the integer digits in order of their
computation. If the new radix is > 10, then convert
all integers > 10 to digits A, B, …
Example: Convert 46.687510 To
Base 2

▪ Convert 46 to Base 2

▪ Convert 0.6875 to Base 2:

▪ Join the results together with the

radix point:
Additional Issue - Fractional Part

▪ Note that in this conversion, the fractional part

became 0 as a result of the repeated
multiplications.
▪ In general, it may take many bits to get this to
happen or it may never happen.
▪ Example: Convert 0.6510 to N2
• 0.65 = 0.1010011001001 …
• The fractional part begins repeating every 4 steps
yielding repeating 1001 forever!
▪ Solution: Specify number of bits to right of
radix point and round or truncate to this
number.
Checking the Conversion

▪ To convert back, sum the digits times their

respective powers of r.
▪ From the prior conversion of 46.687510
1011102 = 1·32 + 0·16 +1·8 +1·4 + 1·2 +0·1
= 32 + 8 + 4 + 2
= 46
0.10112 = 1/2 + 1/8 + 1/16
= 0.5000 + 0.1250 + 0.0625
= 0.6875
Why Do Repeated Division and
Multiplication Work?
▪ Divide the integer portion of the power series
on slide 11 by radix r. The remainder of this
division is A0, represented by the term A0/r.
▪ Discard the remainder and repeat, obtaining
remainders A1, …
▪ Multiply the fractional portion of the power
series on slide 11 by radix r. The integer part of
the product is A-1.
▪ Discard the integer part and repeat, obtaining
integer parts A-2, …
▪ This demonstrates the algorithm for any radix
r >1.
Octal (Hexadecimal) to Binary
and Back
▪ Octal (Hexadecimal) to Binary:
• Restate the octal (hexadecimal) as three
(four) binary digits starting at the radix
point and going both ways.
▪ Binary to Octal (Hexadecimal):
• Group the binary digits into three (four) bit
groups starting at the radix point and going
both ways, padding with zeros as needed in
the fractional part.
• Convert each group of three bits to an octal
(hexadecimal) digit.
Octal to Hexadecimal via Binary

▪ Convert octal to binary.

▪ Use groups of four bits and convert as above to
hexadecimal digits.
▪ Example: Octal to Binary to Hexadecimal
6 3 5 . 1 7 7 8
A Final Conversion Note

▪ You can use arithmetic in other bases if

you are careful:
▪ Example: Convert 1011102 to Base 10
using binary arithmetic:
Step 1 101110 / 1010 = 100 r 0110
Step 2 100 / 1010 = 0 r 0100
Converted Digits are 01002 | 01102
or 4 6 10
Binary Numbers and Binary
Coding
▪ Flexibility of representation
• Within constraints below, can assign any binary
combination (called a code word) to any data as long
as data is uniquely encoded.
▪ Information Types
• Numeric
▪ Must represent range of data needed
▪ Very desirable to represent data such that simple,
straightforward computation for common arithmetic
operations permitted
▪ Tight relation to binary numbers
• Non-numeric
▪ Greater flexibility since arithmetic operations not applied.
▪ Not tied to binary numbers
Non-numeric Binary Codes

▪ Given n binary digits (called bits), a binary code

is a mapping from a set of represented elements
to a subset of the 2n binary numbers.
▪ Example: A Colo Binary Number
binary code rRed 00
for the seven Orange 00
Yellow 1
01
colors of the
Green 011
rainbow Blue 10
▪ Code 100 is Indig 110
not used oViolet 111
Number of Bits Required

▪ Given M elements to be represented by a

binary code, the minimum number of
bits, n, needed, satisfies the following
relationships:
2n > M > 2(n – 1)
n = log2 M where x , called the ceiling
function, is the integer greater than or
equal to x.
▪ Example: How many bits are required to
represent decimal digits with a binary
code?
Number of Elements
Represented
▪ Given n digits in radix r, there are rn
distinct elements that can be represented.
▪ But, you can represent m elements, m <
rn
▪ Examples:
• You can represent 4 elements in radix r = 2
with n = 2 digits: (00, 01, 10, 11).
• You can represent 4 elements in radix r = 2
with n = 4 digits: (0001, 0010, 0100, 1000).
• This second code is called a "one hot" code.
Binary Codes for Decimal Digits

▪ There are over 8,000 ways that you can chose 10 elements
from the 16 binary numbers of 4 bits. A few are useful:

Decima 8,4,2,1 Excess 8,4,-2,-1 Gra

l 0 000 3 0011 000 y000
1 000
0 010 0111
0 010
0
2 001
1 010
0 0110 010
0
3 0011
0 0110
1 010 0111
1
4 010 0111 010
1 0110
5 010
0 100 1011
0 001
6 0110
1 100
0 101 0011
0
7 0111 101
1 100
0 000
8 100 1011
0 100
1 100
1
9 100
0 110 1111
0 100
1
1 0 0
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

▪ The BCD code is the 8,4,2,1 code.

▪ This code is the simplest, most intuitive binary
code for decimal digits and uses the same
powers of 2 as a binary number, but only
encodes the first ten values from 0 to 9.
▪ Example: 1001 (9) = 1000 (8) + 0001 (1)
▪ How many “invalid” code words are there?
▪ What are the “invalid” code words?
Excess 3 Code and 8, 4, –2, –1
Code
Decimal Excess 3 8, 4, –2, –1
0 0011 0000
1 0100 0111
2 0101 0110
3 0110 0101
4 0111 0100
5 1000 1011
6 1001 1010
7 1010 1001
8 1011 1000
9 1100 1111
▪ What interesting property is common
to these two codes?
Gray Code

Decima 8,4,2,1 Gra

l 0 000 y000
1 000
0 010
0
2 001
1 010
0
3 0011
0 0111
1
4 010 0110
5 010
0 001
6 0110
1 0011
0
7 0111 000
8 100 100
1
9 100
0 100
1
1 0
▪ What special property does the Gray code have
in relation to adjacent decimal digits?
 Gray Code (Continued)

▪ Does this special Gray code property

have any value?
▪ An Example: Optical Shaft Encoder
111 00 10 00
0 0 0
B0
B1
110 00 10 00
B2 1 1
1

G2
G1
111 G0
10 01 011
1 0

10 011 110 01
0 for Positions 0 through 7
(a) Binary Code (b) Gray Code for Positions 00through 7
Gray Code (Continued)

▪ How does the shaft encoder work?

▪ For the binary code, what codes may be

produced if the shaft position lies
between codes for 3 and 4 (011 and 100)?

▪ Is this a problem?
Gray Code (Continued)

▪ For the Gray code, what codes may be

produced if the shaft position lies
between codes for 3 and 4 (010 and 110)?

▪ Is this a problem?

▪ Does the Gray code function correctly for

these borderline shaft positions for all
cases encountered in octal counting?
Warning: Conversion or
Coding?
▪ Do NOT mix up conversion of a decimal
number to a binary number with coding
a decimal number with a BINARY
CODE.
▪1310 = 11012 (This is conversion)
▪13 ⇔ 0001|0011 (This is coding)
Binary Arithmetic

▪ Single Bit Addition with Carry

▪ Multiple Bit Addition
▪ Single Bit Subtraction with Borrow
▪ Multiple Bit Subtraction
▪ Multiplication
▪ BCD Addition
Single Bit Binary Addition with
Carry
Multiple Bit Binary Addition

▪ Extending this to two multiple bit

examples:
Carries 0 0
Augend 01100 10110
Addend +10001 +10111
Sum
▪ Note: The 0 is the default Carry-In to
the least significant bit.
Single Bit Binary Subtraction with
Borrow
▪ Given two binary digits (X,Y), a borrow in (Z) we
get the following difference (S) and borrow (B):
▪ Borrow in (Z) of 0: Z 0 0 0 0
X 0 0 1 1
-Y -0 -1 -0 -1
BS 00 11 01 00
▪ Borrow in (Z) of 1: Z 1 1 1 1
X 0 0 1 1
-Y -0 -1 -0 -1
BS 11 10 00 11
 Multiple Bit Binary Subtraction

▪ Extending this to two multiple bit examples:

Borrows 0 0
Minuend 10110 10110
Subtrahend - 10010 - 10011
Difference
▪ Notes: The 0 is a Borrow-In to the least significant
bit. If the Subtrahend > the Minuend, interchange
and append a – to the result.
Binary Multiplication
BCD Arithmetic
▪ Given a BCD code, we use binary arithmetic to add the
8 1000 Eigh digits:
+ +010 Plus
t 5
13
5 1101
1 is 13 (>
▪ Note that the result is 9) MORE THAN 9, so must
be
▪represented
To correct by
thetwo digits!
digit, subtract 10 by adding 6 modulo
8 1000 Eigh16.
+ +0101 Plus t 5
13
5 1101 is 13 (>
+0110 so add 9) 6
carry = 0011 leaving 3 +
0001
1 | 0011 Final cy answer (two digits)
▪ If the digit sum is > 9, add one to the next significant
digit
BCD Addition Example

▪Add 2905BCD to 1897BCD showing

carries and digit corrections.
0
0001 1000 1001 0111
+ 0010 1001 0000 0101
Error-Detection Codes

▪ Redundancy (e.g. extra information), in the

form of extra bits, can be incorporated into
binary code words to detect and correct errors.

▪ A simple form of redundancy is parity, an extra

bit appended onto the code word to make the
number of 1’s odd or even. Parity can detect all
single-bit errors and some multiple-bit errors.
▪ A code word has even parity if the number of
1’s in the code word is even.
▪ A code word has odd parity if the number of 1’s
in the code word is odd.
4-Bit Parity Code Example

▪ Fill in the even and odd parity bits:

Even Parity Odd Parity
Message - Parity Message - Parity
000 - 000 -
001 - 001 -
010 - 010 -
011 - 011 -
100 - 100 -
101 - 101 -
110 - 110 -
111 - 111 -
▪ The codeword "1111" has even parity and the
codeword "1110" has odd parity. Both can be
used to represent 3-bit data.
ASCII Character Codes

▪ American Standard Code for Information

Interchange (Refer to Table 1 -4 in the text)
▪ This code is a popular code used to represent
information sent as character-based data. It uses
7-bits to represent:
• 94 Graphic printing characters.
• 34 Non-printing characters
▪ Some non-printing characters are used for text
format (e.g. BS = Backspace, CR = carriage
return)
▪ Other non-printing characters are used for record
marking and flow control (e.g. STX and ETX start
and end text areas).
ASCII Properties

ASCII has some interesting properties:

▪ Digits 0 to 9 span Hexadecimal values to 3916 .
▪ Upper case -Z span
3016 4116 to 5A16 .
▪ Lower
A case -z span 6116 to 7A16 .
• Lower
a to upper case translation (and vice versa)
occurs flipping bit 6.
▪ Delete
by(DEL) is all bits a carryover from when
punched paper
set, tape was used to store messages.
▪ Punching all holes in a row erased a
mistake!
UNICODE

▪ UNICODE extends ASCII to 65,536

universal characters codes
• For encoding characters in world languages
• Available in many modern applications
• 2 byte (16-bit) code words
• See Reading Supplement – Unicode on the
Companion Website
http://www.prenhall.com/mano
Terms of Use
▪ © 2004 by Pearson Education,Inc. All rights reserved.
▪ The following terms of use apply in addition to the standard
Pearson Education Legal Notice.
▪ Permission is given to incorporate these materials into classroom
presentations and handouts only to instructors adopting Logic and
Computer Design Fundamentals as the course text.
▪ Permission is granted to the instructors adopting the book to post
these materials on a protected website or protected ftp site in
original or modified form. All other website or ftp postings,
including those offering the materials for a fee, are prohibited.
▪ You may not remove or in any way alter this Terms of Use notice
or any trademark, copyright, or other proprietary notice,
including the copyright watermark on each slide.
▪ Return to Title Page