Trigonometry

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 4
Graphs of the
Circular
Functions

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 1
4.1 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine
Functions

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 2
Learning Objectives
• Periodic Functions
• Graph of the Sine Function
• Graph of the Cosine Function
• Graphing Techniques, Amplitude, and Period
• Connecting Graphs with Equations
• A Trigonometric Model

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 3
Periodic Functions
Many things in daily life repeat with a predictable
pattern, such as weather, tides, and hours of daylight.

This periodic graph represents a normal heartbeat.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 4
Periodic Functions
A periodic function is a function f such that

f ( x)  f ( x  np ),

for every real number x in the domain of f, every integer

n, and some positive real number p. The least possible
positive value of p is the period of the function.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 5
Periodic Functions
The circumference of the unit circle is 2 , so the least
possible value of p for which the sine and cosine
functions repeat is 2 .
Therefore, the sine and cosine functions are periodic
functions with period 2 , and the following statements are
are true for every integer n.

sin x sin ( x  n 2 ) and cos x cos( x  n 2 )

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 6
Values of the Sine and Cosine
Functions

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 7
Sine Function f(x) = sin x
Domain: ( , ) Range: [−1, 1]

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 8
Sine Function f(x) = sin x
• The graph is continuous over its entire domain, ( , ).
• Its x-intercepts are of the form n , where n is an integer.
• Its period is 2 .
• The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, so the
function is an odd function. For all x in the domain,
sin(  x)  sin x.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 9
Cosine Function f(x) = cos x
Domain: ( , ) Range: [−1, 1]

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 10
Cosine Function f(x) = cos x
• The graph is continuous over its entire domain, ( , ).

• Its x-intercepts are of the form (2n  1) , where n is
2
is an integer.
• Its period is 2 .
• The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, so
the function is an even function. For all x in the
domain, cos(  x) cos x.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 11
Example 1: Graphing y = a sin x
Graph y = sin x, and compare to the graph of y = sin x.
For a given value of x, the value of y is twice what it
would be for y = sin x. The only change in the graph is
the range, which becomes [−2, 2].

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 12
Example 1: Graphing y = a sin x

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 13
Amplitude
The amplitude of a periodic function is half the
difference between the maximum and minimum values.
It describes the height of the graph both above and
below a horizontal line passing through the “middle” of
the graph.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 14
Amplitude
The graph of y = a sin x or y = a cos x, with a ≠ 0,
will have the same shape as the graph of y = sin x or
y = cos x, respectively, except with range   a , a  .

The amplitude is a .

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 15
Graphs of the Sine and Cosine
Functions
No matter what the value of the amplitude, the periods
of y = a sin x and y = a cos x are still 2 .
Now consider y = sin 2x.

One complete cycle occurs in  units.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 16
Graphs of the Sine and Cosine
Functions
Now consider y = sin 4x.


One complete cycle occurs in units.
2
In general, the graph of a function of the form y = sin bx or
y = cos bx, for b > 0, will have a period different from 2
when b ≠ 1.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 17
Graphs of the Sine and Cosine
Functions
 2 
Divide the interval  0,  into four equal parts to obtain
 b 
the values for which sin bx or cos bx equal −1, 0, or 1.

These values give the minimum points, x-intercepts,

and maximum points on the graph.

Find the midpoint of the interval by adding the x-values

of the endpoints and dividing by 2. Then find the
midpoints of these two intervals using the same
procedure.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 18
Example 2: Graphing y = sin bx
Graph y = sin 2x and compare to the graph of y = sin x.
2
The coefficient of x is 2, so b = 2, and the period is 
2
The graph will complete one period over the interval  0,   .

The endpoints are 0 and  and the three points between the
endpoints are
1 1 3
(0   ) (0   ), and (0   ).
4 2 4

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 19
Example 2: Graphing y = sin bx
The x-values are

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 20
Example 2: Graphing y = sin bx

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 21
Period
For b > 0, the graph of y = sin bx will resemble that of
2
y = sin x, but with period .
b

For b > 0, the graph of y = cos bx will resemble that of

2
y = cos x, but with period .
b

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 22
Example 3: Graphing y = cos bx
2
Graph y cos x over one period.
3

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 23
Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of
Sine and Cosine Functions
To graph y = a sin bx or y = a cos bx, with b > 0, follow
these steps.
2
Step 1 Find the period, . Start with 0 on the x-axis, and
b
2
lay off a distance of .
b
Step 2 Divide the interval into four equal parts.

Step 3 Evaluate the function for each of the five x-values

resulting from Step 2. The points will be maximum points,
minimum points, and x-intercepts.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 24
Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of
Sine and Cosine Functions
Step 4 Plot the points found in Step 3, and join them
with a sinusoidal curve having amplitude a .
Step 5 Draw the graph over additional periods as
needed.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 25
Example 4: Graphing y = a sin bx
Graph y = −2 sin 3x over one period.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 26
Note
When a is negative, the graph of y = a sin bx is the
reflection across the x-axis of the graph of
y  a sin bx.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 27
Example 5: Graphing y = a cos bx for
b That Is a Multiple of Pi
Graph y  3 cos  x over one period.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 28
Note
When b is an integer multiple of  , the x-intercepts
of the graph are rational numbers.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 29
Example 6: Determining an Equation
for a Graph
Determine an equation
of the form y = a cos
bx or y = a sin bx,
where b > 0, for the
given graph.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 30
Example 6: Determining an Equation
for a Graph
The average temperature (in °F) at Mould Bay, Canada,
can be approximated by the function
 
f ( x) 34sin  ( x  4.3) 
6 
where x is the month and x = 1 corresponds to January,
x = 2 corresponds to February, and so on.
(a) To observe the graph over a two-year interval and to
see the maximum and minimum points, graph f in the
window [0, 25] by [−45, 45].

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 31
Example 7: Interpreting a Sine
Function Model
(b) According to this model, what is the average
temperature during the month of May?

(c) What would be an approximation for the average

yearly temperature at Mould Bay?

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 32
4.2 Translations of the Graphs of
the Sine and Cosine Functions

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 33
Learning Objectives
• Horizontal Translations
• Vertical Translations
• Combinations of Translations
• A Trigonometric Model

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 34
Horizontal Translations
The graph of the function
y = f(x − d) is translated
horizontally compared to
the graph of y = f(x).

The translation is d units to the right if d > 0 and is |d|

units to the left if d < 0.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 35
Horizontal Translations
• With circular functions, a horizontal translation is
called a phase shift.
• In the function y = f(x − d), the expression x − d is the
argument.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 36
Example 1: Graphing y = sin (x − d)
 
Graph y sin  x   over one period.
 3

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 37
Example 2: Graphing y = a cos (x − d)
 
Graph y 3cos  x   over one period.
 4

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 38
Example 3: Graphing y = a cos [b(x − d)]
Graph y  2 cos 3 x    over one period.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 39
Vertical Translations
The graph of a function of
the form y = c + f(x) is
translated vertically
compared to the graph of
y = f(x).

The translation is c units up if c > 0 and |c| units down if c <

0.
Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 40
Example 4: Graphing y = c + a cos bx
Graph y = 3 − 2 cos 3x over one period.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 41
Further Guidelines for Sketching Graphs
of Sine and Cosine Functions
2
Step 1 Find an interval whose length is one period
b
by solving the three-part inequality 0 b  x  d  2 .
Step 2 Divide the interval into four equal parts .
Step 3 Evaluate the function for each of the five x-values
resulting from Step 2. The points will be maximum
points, minimum points, and points that intersect the line
y = c.
Step 4 Plot the points found in Step 3, and join them
with a sinusoidal curve having amplitude │a│

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 42
Example 5: Graphing y = c + a sin [b(x−d)]
Graph y  1  2sin (4 x   ) over one period.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 43
Example 6: Modeling Temperature with
a Sine Function
The maximum average monthly temperature in New
Orleans is 83°F and the minimum is 53°F. The table
shows the average monthly temperatures.
Month °F Month °F
Jan 53 July 83
Feb 57 Aug 83
Mar 63 Sept 80
Apr 69 Oct 71
May 77 Nov 63
June 82 Dec 56

Source: World Almanac and Book of Facts

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 44
Example 6: Modeling Temperature with
a Sine Function
The scatter diagram for a
two-year interval strongly
suggests that the
temperatures can be
modeled with a sine curve.

(a) Using only the maximum and minimum

temperatures, determine a function of the form
f ( x) a sin[b( x  d )]  c
where a, b, c, and d are constants, that models the
average monthly temperature in New Orleans. Let x
represent the month, with January corresponding to x
= 1. Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 45
Example 6: Modeling Temperature with
a Sine Function
(b) On the same coordinate axes, graph f for a two-year
period together with the actual data values found in the
table.

(c) Use the sine regression feature of a graphing calculator

to determine a second model for these data.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 46
4.3 Graphs of the Tangent and
Cotangent Functions

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 47
Learning Objectives
• Graph of the Tangent Function
• Graph of the Cotangent Function
• Techniques for Graphing
• Connecting Graphs with Equations

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 48
Graph of the Tangent Function
A vertical asymptote is a vertical line that the graph
approaches but does not intersect. As the x-values get
closer and closer to the line, the function values
increase or decrease without bound.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 49
Tangent Function f(x) = tan x
  
Domain :  x x (2n  1) , where n isany integer 
 2 
Range :  ,  

π π
f  x  = tanx ,  <x<
2 2
Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 50
Tangent Function f(x) = tan x
• The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form

x (2n  1) and has vertical asymptotes at these values.
2
• Its x-intercepts are of the form x n .
• Its period is  .
• Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no minimum or
maximum values.
• The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, so the
function is an odd function. For all x in the domain,
tan(−x) = −tan(x).
Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 51
Cotangent Function f(x) = cot x
Domain :  x x n , where n isany integer
Range :  ,  

f  x  = cotx , 0 < x < π

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 52
Cotangent Function f(x) = cot x
• The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form
x n and has vertical asymptotes at these values.

• Its x-intercepts are of the form x (2n  1) .
2
• Its period is  .

• Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no minimum or

maximum values.
• The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, so
the function is an odd function. For all x in the domain,
cot(−x) = −cot(x).
Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 53
Tangent and Cotangent Functions
The tangent function can be graphed directly with a
graphing calculator using the tangent key.
To graph the cotangent function, we must use one of
the identities

1 cos x
cot x  or cot x 
tan x sin x
because graphing calculators generally do not have
cotangent keys.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 54
Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of
Tangent and Cotangent Functions

Step 1: Determine the period, . To locate two adjacent
b
vertical asymptotes, solve the following equations for x:
 
For y = a tan bx: bx  and bx 
2 2
For y = a cot bx: bx 0 and bx 

Step 2: Sketch the two vertical asymptotes found in

Step 1.
Step 3: Divide the interval formed by the vertical
asymptotes into four equal parts.
Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 55
Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of
Tangent and Cotangent Functions
Step 4: Evaluate the function for the first-quarter point,
midpoint, and third-quarter point, using the x-values
found in Step 3.
Step 5: Join the points with a smooth curve,
approaching the vertical asymptotes. Indicate additional
asymptotes and periods of the graph as necessary.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 56
Example 1: Graphing y = tan bx
Graph y = tan 2x.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 57
Example 2: Graphing y = a tan bx
1
Graph y  3 tan x.
2

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 58
Example 3: Graphing y = a cot bx
1
Graph y  cot 2 x.
2

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 59
Example 4: Graphing y = c + tan x
Graph y = 2 + tan x.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 60
Example 5: Graph y = c + a cot(x − d)

 
Graph y  2  cot  x   .
 4

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 61
Example 6(a): Determining an Equation
for a Graph
Determine an equation for each graph.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 62
Example 6(b): Determining an Equation
for a Graph
Determine an equation for each graph.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 63
4.4 Graphs of the Secant and
Cosecant Functions

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 64
Learning Objectives
• Graph of the Secant Function
• Graph of the Cosecant Function
• Techniques for Graphing
• Connecting Graphs with Equations
• Addition of Ordinates

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 65
Secant Function f(x) = sec x
  
Domain :  x | x 2n  1 , where n is any integer 
 2 
Range :  ,  1  1,  

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 66
Secant Function f(x) = sec x

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 67
Secant Function f(x) = sec x
• The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form

x (2n  1) and has vertical asymptotes at these values.
2
• There are no x-intercepts.
• Its period is 2 .
• Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no minimum or
maximum values.
• The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, so the
function is an even function. For all x in the domain,
sec(−x) = sec(x).

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 68
Cosecant Function f(x) = csc x
Domain :  x | x n  , where n is any integer
Range :  ,  1  1,  

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 69
Cosecant Function f(x) = csc x

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 70
Cosecant Function f(x) = csc x
• The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form
x n and has vertical asymptotes at these values.
• There are no x-intercepts.
• Its period is 2 .
• Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no minimum or
maximum values.
• The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, so the
function is an odd function. For all x in the domain,
csc(−x) = −csc(x).

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 71
Secant and Cosecant Functions
To graph the cosecant function on a graphing calculator,
use the identity

1
csc x 
sin x
To graph the secant function on a graphing calculator,
use the identity

1
sec x 
cos x

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 72
Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of
Cosecant and Secant Functions
Step 1 Graph the corresponding reciprocal function as
a guide, using a dashed curve.

To Graph Use as an Guide

y = a csc bx y = a sin bx
y = a sec bx y = cos bx

Step 2 Sketch the vertical asymptotes. They will have

equations of the form x = k, where k is an x-intercept of
the graph of the guide function.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 73
Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of
Cosecant and Secant Functions
Step 3 Sketch the graph of the desired function by
drawing the typical U-shaped branches between the
adjacent asymptotes.
The branches will be above the graph of the guide
function when the guide function values are positive and
below the graph of the guide function when the guide
function values are negative.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 74
Example 1: Graphing y = a sec bx
1
Graph y 2sec x.
2

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 75
Graphing y = a csc (x − d)
3  
Graph y  csc  x   .
2  2

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 76
Example 3(a): Determining an
Equation for a Graph
Determine an equation for the graph

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 77
Example 3(b): Determining an Equation
for a Graph
Determine an equation for the graph.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 78
Addition of Ordinates
New functions can be formed by adding or subtracting
other functions.
y cos x  sin x
Graph y = cos x and y = sin x. Then, for selected values
of x, plot the points (x, cos x + sin x) and join the
resulting points with a sinusoidal curve.

Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide - 79