Unit 3

DC and AC Machines
 DC Generator
• DC generator is an electrical machine, which converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy.
Mechanical energy Electrical Energy
Generator

Construction:
Parts of a DC Generator:
Yoke
Field system
Armature
Brushes
Commutator
YOKE :
• It is the outermost solid part of the machine. It act as the protecting cover for the

whole machine and protects all the inner parts of the machine from damage.
• It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
• It is made up of cast iron.
Field System:
• It consists of main field poles and field winding.
• The poles are in the shape of horse shoe so that uniform distribution of flux is
obtained in the air gap between the poles and rotating parts.
• The field winding is placed over each pole and all these are connected in series.
Armature:
• The armature core consists of armature core and armature windings.
• The armature conductors rotate under the poles and hence the flux produced by the
field magnet is cut by the armature.
• Due to rotation of conductors between north and south poles, hysteresis loss will be
there. To reduce that silicon steel is used in the armature.
• Due to rotation of armature under the flux eddy current will be there hence solid iron
armature is used and we can also reduce eddy current by insulating the armature.
• The insulation is 0.4 mm to 0.5 mm thickness
• The eddy current and hysteresis loss produce heat in the conductors, so ventilating
ducts are used to remove the heat.
Commutator:
• It converts the alternating emf in to unidirectional emf
• It is made up of wedge shaped segments and it is insulated from each other by thin
layers of mica.
Brushes:
• A set of brushes made up of carbon or graphite is fixed to collect the current from
commutator and to convey it to the external load.
 Principle of Operation

Faradays law of Electromagnetic Induction:

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an
electromotive force is induced. If the conductor circuit is closed, a current is
induced which is called induced current.
Generator is a dynamic machine. It operates on the principle on
faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
• A steady magnetic field produced by the pole pieces of a
magnet N and S.
• A single turn coil ABCD is placed in the field produced
between the pole pieces.
• The coil rotated by means of a prime mover.
• Thus as per faradays law, an emf induced in the coil. Such an
emf is basically alternating.
• The bidirectional induced emf is made unidirectional using
the commutator.
• A set of brushes is fixed to collect the current from
commutator and to convey it to the external load.
Flemings Right hand rule
The magnitude of the induced emf is given by,
E = B * l* V
Where ,
B = Magnetic flux density
L = Active length of conductor in metre
V = Relative velocity of conductor in metre / sec

If angle between the plane of rotation and the plane of flux is θ, then the induced
emf is given by

E = B * l* V Sinθ
 Types of Armature winding
Lap winding & Wave winding

Lap winding
Wave Winding
 Difference between Lap and Wave winding

Lap winding Wave winding

Number of parallel paths (A) = P Number of parallel paths (A) = 2

Number of brush sets required is equal to Number of brush sets required is always
number of poles two

Preferable for high current, low voltage Preferable for high voltage, low current
capacity generators capacity generators

Normally used for generators of capacity Preferred for generators of capacity less
more than 500 A than 500 A
EMF Equation of DC Generator
 Types of DC Generator

Separately Excited DC Generator

Ra
 Here the field winding is supplied from external DC supply hence it
is called as separately excited generator.

If = Field Current

Ia = Armature Current

IL = Load Current

Vt = Terminal Voltage

E = Induced emf

Here,
Armature current Ia = Load Current IL

Then Induced emf E is given by,

E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Vbrush
 Self Excited DC Generator

When the field winding is supplied from the armature

of the generator itself then it is said to be self excited generator.

Types of self excited generator

1. Shunt Generator
2. Series Generator
3. Compound Generator
DC Shunt Generator

Ra
 When the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and
the combination across the load, then the generator is called shunt generator.

From the figure,

Ia = IL + Ish
Ish = Shunt field current

Voltage across load Vt = IshRsh

Rsh = Shunt field resistance

Induced emf E is given by,

E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Vbrush
DC Series Generator

Rse

Ra
 When the field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding while supplying the load then it is series generator.

From the figure,

Ia = Ise = IL
Ish = Shunt field current
Ise = Series field current

Induced emf E is given by,

E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush
 DC Compound Generator

Long Shunt

Ra
 In this type, shunt field winding is connected across the series
combination of armature and series field winding.

From the figure,

Ia = Ise
Ia = Ise = IL + Ish

Voltage across shunt field winding Vt = IshRsh

Induced emf E is given by,

E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Ia Rse + Vbrush
Short Shunt
 In this type, shunt field winding is connected only across the
armature, excluding series field winding.

From the figure,

Ia = Ise + Ish
IL = Ise
Ia = IL + Ish
 Characteristics of DC Generators
Characteristics of DC Series Generator:

• In a DC series generator (Ia = Ise = IL), only one current flows through

the whole machine.

• Therefore, the armature current, load current and excitation all are
same.

Open Circuit Characteristics (O.C.C):

• It is the graph plotted between the generated EMF at no-load and field
current.
Internal Characteristics :
• The internal characteristics of a DC series generator is the graph plotted between generated
EMF (E) on-load and the armature current.
• Because of the effect of armature reaction, the magnetic flux on-load will be less than the
flux at no-load.
• Therefore, the generated EMF (E) under loaded condition will be less than the EMF
generated (E0) at no-load.

• As a result of this, the internal characteristics curve lies just below the open circuit
characteristics.
External Characteristics or Load Characteristics:
• The external characteristics or load characteristics is the plot between the terminal voltage
(Vt) and load current (IL}).

• Since, the terminal voltage is less than the generated voltage due to armature and series
field copper losses.
• Therefore, the external characteristics curve will lie below the internal characteristics
curve.
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
• In a shunt generator, the armature current splits up into two parts

• (Ia = IL + Ish):

• One is Ish flowing through the field winding and the other is I L which
goes to the external load.

Open Circuit Characteristics (O.C.C):

• It is the graph plotted between the generated EMF at no-load and field
current.
Internal Characteristics:
• When the load is connected to the generator, the generated EMF (E) is
reduced due the reduced flux per pole because of the effect of
armature reaction.
• Therefore, the generated EMF under loaded condition is less than the
generated EMF at no-load.
• As a result of this, the internal characteristics drops down slightly.

External Characteristics:
• It gives the relation between the terminal voltage (Vt) and the load
current (IL).

• There is a voltage drop due to armature resistance and hence the

external characteristics lies below the internal characteristics.
 External or Load Characteristics of DC Compound Generator

• In compound DC generators, both the series and shunt fields are combined.
• Depending upon the connection of field winding with the armature, the compound generators are of
either short shunt or long-shunt type.

Over-Compounded Generator:
• If the full-load terminal voltage is greater than the no-load terminal voltage, then the generator is
known as over-compounded generator.
Flat-Compounded Generator:
• If the full load terminal voltage is equal to the no load terminal voltage, the generator is known as flat-
compounded.
Under-Compounded Generator:
• If the terminal voltage at full load is less than the terminal voltage at no-load, the generator is known as
under-compounded generator.
 Applications of DC Generator
Separately Excited DC Generators
• Separately excited DC Generators are used in laboratories for testing as they have a wide range
of voltage output.
• Used as a supply source of DC motors.

Shunt Generators
• DC shunt-wound generators are used for lighting purposes.
• Used to charge the battery.
• Providing excitation to the alternators.

Series Generators
• DC series wound generators are used in DC locomotives for regenerative braking for providing
field excitation current.
• Used as a booster in distribution networks.
• Over compounded cumulative generators are used in lighting and heavy power supply.
• Flat compounded generators are used in offices, hotels, homes, schools, etc.
• Differentially compounded generators are mainly used for arc welding purpose.
 DC MOTORS

DC motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to

mechanical energy based on the faraday’s law electromagnetic
induction.

Construction :
Parts of a DC motor:
Yoke
Field system
Armature
Brushes
Commutator
Principle of operation:
• DC machine consists of both armature and field windings connected
to the DC supply.
• Here the armature is the rotating part and field winding is kept
stationary.

Faraday’s law :
• Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force tending to move it.
• If a current carrying conductor is placed between two magnetic
poles, then both the fields will be distorted.
• Above the conductor the field is weakened (less flux) and below
the conductor the field is strengthened. Therefore, the conductor
tends to move upwards.

• The direction of the current is reversed, then the field below the
conductor is less and field above the conductor is more. Then the
conductor move downwards.
• The direction of motion of conductor is given by fleming’s left hand
rule.
• The thumb, the forefinger and middle finger of the left hand are held such
that the fingers are mutually perpendicular to each other.
• Fore finger indicates the direction of field
• Middle finger indicates the direction of current
• Thumb indicates the direction of motion of conductor
BACK EMF:
when a motor rotates, the conductors housed in the armature also rotate and cut the magnetic lines
of force. So an emf is induced in the armature conductors and this induced emf opposes the supply
voltage as per lenz’s law. This induced emf is called back emf or counter emf..

Where,
Ф = flux per pole in Wb
Z= number of conductors
N= speed in rpm
P= number of poles
A= number of parallel paths

Equivalent circuit of motor

Voltage equation of the motor:

From the above, armature current is given as,

Types of DC motors:
The classification is based on the connections of field winding in relation to the armature.
(i) Separately excited DC motor
Here, the field winding and armature winding are separated.
The field winding is excited with a separate DC source, hence it is separately excited DC
motor.
(ii) Self excited motor:
Here both armature and field excited by the same DC source.
DC series motor ( It should not be started without load ):
• A DC series motor should not be started without a load because it will rotate at a dangerously high
speed and could potentially break.
• When a DC series motor is started without a load, it draws a small amount of current from the supply
mains.
• This current flows through the series field and armature, causing the speed to increase.
Here the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
The field winding have less number of turns. R se is the resistance of the series field winding

IL = line current
Ia = Ise = IL

E = V - Ia Ra - Ise Rse - Vbrush

DC shunt motor (Constant flux motor or Constant speed motor):
Here the field winding is connected in parallel to the armature. Ф α I sh

E = V - Ia Ra - Vbrush
DC compound motor:
a) Long shunt compound motor:
Here the shunt field winding is connected across both armature and series field winding.

E = V - Ia Ra - Ise Rse - Vbrush

b) Short shunt compound motor:
Here the shunt field winding is across the armature and series field winding is connected in
series with this combination.

E = V - Ia Ra - Ise Rse - Vbrush

 Characteristics of DC Motor
Following are the three important characteristics of a DC motor
1. Torque and Armature Current Characteristics :

• It is the graph plotted between the armature torque (τa) and the armature

current (Ia) of a DC motor. It is also known as electrical characteristics of the

DC motor.
2. Speed and Armature Current Characteristics :

• It is the graph plotted between the speed (N) and the armature current (Ia) of
a DC motor. This characteristic curve is mainly used for selecting a motor for
a particular application.
3. Speed and Torque Characteristics:

• The graph plotted between the speed (N) and the armature torque (τa) for a
DC motor is known as the speed-torque characteristics. It is also known as
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
The shunt motors are the constant flux machines
Torque and Armature Current Characteristics :
• The torque in a DC motor is directly proportional to the flux and the armature
current, i.e.,

• Hence, the torque and armature current characteristics of DC shunt motor is

 Speed and Armature Current Characteristics

• For a DC shunt motor, the back EMF and flux both are constant under normal
operating conditions. Therefore, the speed of a shunt motor will remain
constant with respect to armature current.
 Speed and Torque Characteristics

• This is the curve plotted between the speed and the torque for various
armature currents. It can be seen that the speed of the shunt motor
decreases as the load torque increases.
 Characteristics of DC Series Motor

Torque and Armature Current Characteristics:

DC series motor have high starting torque.
Speed and Armature Current Characteristics
 Speed and Torque Characteristics

• The speed torque characteristics of a DC series motor can be obtained from its
speed-armature current and torque-armature current characteristics as
follows

• For a given value of Ia determine τa from the torque-armature current

curve and N from the speed-armature current curve. This will give a point
(τ,N) on speed-torque curve.
 Characteristics of Cumulative Compound DC Motor
Operates under varying load and needs both good speed regulation and torque
control .

Torque and Armature Current Characteristics :

• When the armature current is increased, the series field increases whereas
the shunt field remains constant.
• As a result, the total flux and current in the machine is increases and hence
the armature torque increases.
 Speed and Armature Current Characteristics
• When the load is increased, the armature current is also
increased which increases the flux per pole.
• Consequently, the speed of the motor decreases with the
increase in the load.
• Therefore, a cumulative compound motor has poor speed
regulation.
 Speed and Torque Characteristics

• For a given armature current, the torque of a cumulative

compound motor is greater than that of a shunt motor but less
than that of a series motor.
Applications of DC Motor
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
 Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

• It is also known as rotating transformer.

• Three phase induction motor does not require any starting device
or we can say they are self starting induction motor.
It consists of two main parts namely,
• Stator
• Rotor
Stator:
 It is a stationary part, has a cylindrical-shaped frame made up of
fabricated steel.
 Steel frame has a hollow cylindrical core made up of thin laminations
of silicon steel.
 Core has a number of evenly spaced slots to place the stator winding.

 The silicon-steel laminations of thickness 0.4 to 0.5 mm are used to

reduce the hysteresis and eddy current losses.
 Three windings are placed in the stator slots to have a balanced three-phase delta or
star connected circuit.
 Where, greater is the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the induction motor
and vice-versa.
 When we fed the three-phase stator winding from a balanced three-phase supply,
a rotating magnetic field is produced.
 This rotating magnetic induces EMF in the rotor circuit by electromagnetic
induction.
 Rotor of Three Phase Induction Motor

 The rotor is a rotating or moving part of the three-phase induction

motor.
 It consists of a rotor core made up of thin laminations of high-grade
silicon steel to reduce the hysteresis and eddy-current losses.
 The rotor core is a hollow cylinder, mounted on a shaft.
 On outer periphery of the rotor core, slots are provided to place the
rotor winding.
 Based on the construction, the rotor of a three-phase induction motor can
be of the following two types −
• Squirrel-cage rotor
• Wound rotor
 Squirrel Cage Type Rotor

 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on

its outer periphery.
 The rotor winding is made up of metal (copper or aluminium) bars.
 These metal bars are placed in the rotor slots and are short-
circuited at each end by metal rings called end-rings.
 The rotor is not connected electrically to the supply, but it
derives its voltage and power by the electromagnetic induction
from the stator.
 The three-phase induction motors that employ squirrel-cage
rotor are known as squirrel-cage induction motors.
 Almost 70% to 80% three-induction motors used in industrial
applications are squirrel-cage induction motors because of their
simple and robust.
 Although, the induction motors that use squirrel-cage rotor
have a low starting torque.
 Wound Rotor or Slip Ring Rotor

 The slip ring rotor consists of a laminated cylindrical armature core.

 The slots are provided on the outer periphery and insulated conductors are put in
the slots.
 The rotor conductors are connected to form a 3-phase double layer distributed
winding similar to the stator winding.
 The rotor windings are connected in star fashion.
 The open ends of the star circuit are taken outside the rotor and connected to
three insulated slip rings.
 The slip rings are mounted on the rotor shaft with brushes resting on them.
 Here, the slip rings and brushes are used to provide a mean for connecting
external resistors in the rotor circuit.
 Comparison between squirrel cage and slip ring induction motors
s.n Squirrel cage induction motor Slip ring induction motors
o
1 Rotor construction is very simple Construction is complicated
2 Rotor consist of bars which are Rotor consist of three phase winding
shorted at the ends with the help of similar to the starter winding
end rings
3 Resistance can not added externally Resistance can be added externally
due to permanently shorted
4 Slip rings and brushes are absent Slip rings and brushes are present to
add external resistance
5 High starting current Low starting current
6 Cheaper cost and low maintenance High cost and maintenance are more
7 Higher efficiency Lower efficiency
8 Rotor resistance starter cannot be used Rotor resistance starter can be used

9 Less starting torque High starting torque

10 Application: used for drilling Applications: used for lifts, cranes,
machines, fans, grinders, printing elevators etc.
machiens etc.
 Working Principle of Three Phase Induction Motor

 A Three Phase Induction Motor has a stator and a rotor.

 The stator carries a 3-phase winding called as stator
winding while the rotor carries a short-circuited winding
called as rotor winding.
 The stator winding is fed from 3-phase supply and the
rotor winding derives its voltage and power from the
stator winding through electromagnetic induction.
 Therefore, the working principle of a 3-phase induction
motor is fundamentally based on electromagnetic induction.
• Consider a portion of a three-phase induction motor,

 When the stator winding is connected to a balanced three phase

supply, a Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF) is setup which rotates
around the stator at synchronous speed (Ns). Where,
 The RMF passes through air gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which are
stationary at start.
 Due to relative motion between RMF and the stationary rotor, an EMF is
induced in the rotor conductors.
 Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, a current starts flowing in the rotor
conductors.
 Now, the current carrying rotor conductors are in a magnetic field created by
the stator.
 As a result of this, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors.
 The sum of mechanical forces on all the rotor conductors produces a torque
which tries to move the rotor in the same direction as the RMF.
 Hence, the induction motor starts to rotate.
 The three-induction motor accelerates till the speed reached to a speed just
below the synchronous speed.
Ns = speed of rotating magnetic field in r.p.m

Nr = speed of rotor in r.p.m

NS- Nr = relative speed

• Rotor always rotate in same direction as that of RMF.

• The induction motor never rotates at synchronous speed so it is
called asynchronous motor.
• The speed at which it rotates is called sub synchronous speed.

Slip of induction motor

• Difference between the two speeds (NS and Nr ) is called slip

speed
• Difference between the synchronous speed (NS ) and actual

speed of rotor i.e., motor( Nr ) expressed as a fraction of the

synchronous speed (NS- Nr )

s = (NS- Nr )/ NS (absolute slip)

the percentage slip is

% s= (NS- Nr )/ NS * 100

where Nr = NS ( 1- s )

at start motor is rest so speed is zero

s= 1 at start.
 Applications of three-phase induction motors

• Lifts.

• Cranes.

• Hoists.

• Large exhaust fans.

• Lathe machines.

• Crushers.

• Oil extracting mills.

• Textiles.