UNIT III

Measurements of Resistance,
Inductance & Capacitance
3.1 Ammeter- Voltmeter method
3.2 Potentiometer method
3.3 DC bridges
1. Wheatstone bridge
2. Kelvin bridge
3. Kelvin double bridge
3.4 AC bridges
1. Maxwell bridge
2. Hay’s bridge
3. Desauty bridge
4. Schering bridge
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5. Anderson bridge, Owen bridge, Wien bridge
Electrical resistances on the basis of view point of
measurement: are classified as follows:

1.High Resistance: under this category resistance is

greater than 0.1 Mega-ohm.

2.Medium Resistance: under this category resistance

is ranging from 1 ohm to 0.1 Mega-ohm.

3. Low Resistance: under this category resistance

value is lower than 1 ohm
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we have to use different devices for different
categories. It means if the device is used in
measuring the high resistance gives high
accuracy, it may or may not give such high
accuracy in measuring the low value of resistance.

Now let us again recall our classification done

above, as we move from top to bottom the value
of resistance decreases hence, we require more
accurate and precise device to measure the low
value of resistance.
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Measurement of Low Resistance using Ammeter-
Voltmeter Method
 The voltmeter–ammeter method is a direct
application of ohm’s law in which the unknown
resistance is estimated by measurement of current
(I) flowing through it and the voltage drop (V)
across it.

 Limpest and Most comely used method for

measurement of resistance. However the
accuracy of this method is low compared to the
other low resistance measurement.
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 This is because, accuracy is limited by
characteristics of voltmeter and ammeter.

 Two types of connections are employed for

voltmeter–ammeter method as shown in

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Rx = true value of unknown resistance
Rm = measured value of unknown resistance
Ra = internal resistance of ammeter
RV = internal resistance of voltmeter
It is desired that in both the cases shown in Figure,
the measured resistance Rm would be equal to the
true value Rx of the unknown resistance.

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This is only possible, as we will see, if the
ammeter resistance is zero and the voltmeter
resistance is infinite.
But practical this is not the case. hence the
accuracy is affected.

To decide which method is best for low

resistance measurement. lets calculate the error in
each case
In this circuit, the ammeter is connected directly
with the unknown resistance, but the voltmeter is
connected across the series combination of
ammeter and the resistance Rx. 7
The ammeter measures the true value of current
through the resistance but the voltmeter does not
measure the true value of voltage across the
resistance. The voltmeter measures the sum of
voltage drops across the ammeter and the unknown
resistance Rx.
Let, voltmeter reading = V
And, ammeter reading = I
measured value of resistance
However, V = Va + Vr
or, V = I × Ra + I × Rx = I × (Ra + Rx)

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The measured value Rm of the unknown resistance is thus
higher than the true value R, by the quantity Ra, internal
resistance of the ammeter. It is also clear from the above
that true value is equal to the measured value only if the
ammeter resistance is zero.

Error in measurement is
if the resistance under measurement is much higher as
compared to the ammeter resistance (Rx Ra.), then the
connection method shown can be employed without
involving much error.
Therefore, circuit shown should be used for measurement
of high resistance values. 9
In this circuit, the voltmeter is connected directly across
the unknown resistance, but the ammeter is connected in
series with the parallel combination of voltmeter and the
resistance Rx.

The voltmeter thus measures the true value of voltage

drop across the resistance but the ammeter does not
measure the true value of current through the resistance.
The ammeter measures the summation of current flowing
through the voltmeter and the unknown resistance Rx.
Let, voltmeter reading = V and ,
ammeter reading = I
Thus, V = IR × RX = IV × RV
However, I = IV + IR 10
measured value of resistance

The measured value Rm of the unknown resistance is

thus lower than the true value Rx by a quantity related
to internal resistance of the voltmeter. It is also clear
from above Eq. that true value is equal to the
measured value only if the quantity , i.e., if voltmeter
resistance is infinite.
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In other words, if the voltmeter resistance is much
higher as compared to the resistance under
measurement (RV >> RA) then the connection method
shown can be employed without involving much
error.
Therefore, circuit should be used for measurement of
low resistance values.

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Measurement of Resistance using Potentiometer

The DC potentiometer method of measurement of

resistance is used for measuring the unknown
resistance of low value. This can be done by
comparing the unknown resistance with the
standard resistance. The voltage drop across the
known and unknown resistance is measured and
by comparison the value of known resistance is
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determined.
Let understand this with the help of the circuit
diagram. The R is the unknown resistance whose
value is needed to be measured. The S is the
standard resistance from which the value of
unknown resistance is compared.

The rheostat is used for controlling the

magnitude of current into the circuit.
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15
The double pole double throw switch is used in the
circuit. The switch, when moves to position 1, 1’ the
unknown resistance connects to the circuit, and
when it moves to position 2, 2’ the standard
resistance connects to the circuit.
Consider that when the switch is in position 1,1’ the
voltage drop across the unknown resistance is Vr

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 and when it is in 2, 2 ’ the voltage drop across the resistance
is V s

The accuracy of unknown resistance depends on the value

of standard resistance, on the magnitude of the current at the
time of the readings. If the magnitude of current remains
same, the circuit gives the accurate result.
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 The ammeter is used in the circuit for determining the
magnitude of current passing through resistor during the
reading

 However there are other kind of methods also like

ammeter-voltmeter method, substitution method etc, but
they give large error as compared to bridge method and
are avoided in most of the industries.

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19
 Bridge:
Objectives:
1. To familiarize the students with measurement of low,
medium and high resistances.
2. To familiarize the students with measurement of
Inductance.
3. To familiarize the students with measurement of
Capacitance

They are usually consisting of four arms, balance detector

and source. They work on the concept of null point
technique. They are very useful in practical applications
because there is no need of making the meter precise linear
with an accurate scale.
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 There is no requirement of measuring the voltage and
current, the only need is to check the presence or absence
of current or voltage.

 However, the main concern is that during the null point

meter must be able to pick up fairly small current.

 A bridge can be defined as the voltage dividers in

parallel and the difference between the two dividers is
our output.

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It is highly useful in measuring components like electrical
resistance, capacitance, inductor and other parameter of
circuit.

Accuracy of any bridge is directly related to bridge

components.

Null point: It can be defined as the point at which the null

measurement occurs when the reading of ammeter or
voltmeter is zero.

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 DC Bridges

1. Wheatstone Bridge and Balance

Condition
2. Kelvin Bridge Circuit
3. Kelvin Double Bridge(Ass)

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1. Wheatstone Bridge and Balance Condition:

Wheatstone bridge is a very important device used

in the measurement of resistances .

A Wheatstone bridge has been in use longer than

almost, any electrical measuring instrument. It is
still an accurate and reliable instrument and is
extensively used in industry. 24
Wheatstone bridge is an instrument for making
comparison measurements and operates upon a null
indication principle. Wheatstone bridge which is
capable of measuring electrical resistance accurately
as it gives accuracy of 0.1 %.

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One of the major drawback of the Wheatstone bridge is that,
it can measure the resistance from few ohm to several mega
ohm but to measure low resistance it gives significant error. 26
 Kelvin Bridge Circuit
 The kelvin’s bridge may be regarded as a modified
of the wheatstone bridge to secure increased
accuracy in the measurement of low resistance. It
is used to measure resistance from few micro ohm
to 1.0 ohm.
 Now the question that must be arise in our mind
that where do we need the modification.(at
portion of leads)
 Kelvin bridge, which is not only suitable for measuring
low value of resistance but has wide range of applications
in the industrial world.

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 Let us discuss few terms that will be very helpful to us in
studying the Kelvin Bridge
 Let us consider the modified Wheatstone bridge
or Kelvin bridge circuit given below:
 Here, Ry is the resistance of the lead.
 R3 is the unknown resistance.
 Rx is the standard resistance (whose value is
known).
 Let us mark the two points a and c.
If the galvanometer is connected to a point the
resistance Ry is added to Rx which results in too
low value of R3.
Now we connect galvanometer to c point it would
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result in high value of unknown resistance R 3.
Bridge Balance Equation 1

3
 Sub 7 in 8
From Equ. 1
9

10
4

Sub. equ. 7 & 10 in equ. 3

5

Sub. Equ. 5 in 4

6 11

7
12

From 5

8
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A.C. Bridges:
AC bridges are similar to Wheatstone bridge in
which D.C. source is replaced by an A.C. source and
galvanometer with head phone/null detector. The
resistors of bridge are replaced with combination of
resistor, inductor and capacitors (i.e. impedances).
These bridges are used to determine the unknown
capacitance/inductance of capacitor/inductor.
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The working of these bridges is also based on Ohm’s
and Kirchoff’s law
Circuit diagramme: It has four arms with impedances
forming a bridge.
The two opposite junctions are connected to a head
phone while the other two are connected with an a.c.
source.

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Principle and Balance condition: When the
potential difference across B and C becomes zero.
No current flows through BC arm. Thus no sound is
heard in head phone. This situation is called as
bridge balance situation. The bridge balance
condition can be obtained using the Kirchoff’s
voltage and current law.

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Since under the balance
condition the head phone
current (IH) is zero. Thus,
I1=I2 and I3=I4
Applying KVL for loop
ABCA, we have
I1Z1− I3Z3=0
⇒I1Z1=I3Z3 (1)
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And applying KVL for loop BCDB, we have
I4Z4− I2Z2=0
⇒ I4 Z4 = I 2 Z2 (2)
Dividing eq.(1) with eq.(2) we have,
Magnitude and phase angle balance condition.

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Types of Maxwell’s Bridge
Two methods are used for determining the self-
inductance of the circuit. They are
1. Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
2. Maxwell’s inductance Capacitance Bridge

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 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

In such type of bridges, the value of unknown

resistance is determined by comparing it with the
known value of the standard self-inductance.
The connection diagram for the balance Maxwell
bridge is shown in the figure below.

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Let, L1 – unknown inductance of resistance R 1 .
L2 – Variable inductance of fixed resistance r 2 .
R2 – variable resistance connected in series with inductor L 2 .
R3 , R4 – known non-inductance resistance

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Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge
In this type of bridges, the unknown resistance is
measured with the help of the standard variable
capacitance. The connection diagram of the
Maxwell Bridge is shown in the figure below.

Let, L1 – unknown inductance of

resistance R 1 .
R1 – Variable inductance of fixed
resistance r 1 .
R2 , R3 , R4 – variable resistance
connected in series with inductor L 2 .
C4 – known non-inductance resistance 39
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have

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Advantages of the Maxwell’s Bridges
The following are the advantages of the Maxwell bridges
1. The balance equation of the circuit is free from frequency.
2. Both the balance equations are independent of each other.
3. The Maxwell’s inductor capacitance bridge is used for the
measurement of the high range inductance.
Disadvantages of the Maxwell’s Bridge
1. The Maxwell inductor capacitance bridge requires a variable
capacitor which is very expensive.
Thus, sometimes the standard variable capacitor is used in the bridges.
2. The bridge is only used for the measurement of medium quality
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Anderson’s Bridge
The Anderson’s bridge gives the accurate
measurement of self-inductance of the circuit.
The bridge is the advanced form of Maxwell’s
inductance capacitance bridge. In Anderson
bridge, the unknown inductance is compared
with the standard fixed capacitance which is
connected between the two arms of the bridge.

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 Constructions of Anderson’s Bridge
 The bridge has fours arms ab, bc, cd, and ad. The
arm ab consists unknown inductance along with the
resistance. And the other three arms consist the
purely resistive arms connected in series with the
circuit.

 The static capacitor and the variable resistor are

connected in series and placed in parallel with the
cd arm. The voltage source is applied to the
terminal a and c.
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44
45
 The current enters into the bridge is divided into the
two parts I1 and I2 .
 The I1 is entered into the arm ab and causes the
voltage drop I1 (R1 +R) which is in phase with the I1
 As the bridge is in the balanced condition, the same
current is passed through the arms bc and ec.
 The voltage drop E4 is equal to the sum of the IC /ωC
and the IC r. The current I4 and the voltage E4 are in
the same phase and representing on the same line of
the phasor diagram.
 The sum of the current IC and I4 will give rise to the
current I2 in the arm ad.
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 When the bridge is at balance condition the emf
across the arm ab and the point a, d and e are equal.
The phasor sum of the voltage across the arms ac and
de will give rise the voltage drops across the arm ab.

 The V 1 is also obtained by adding the I1 (R1 +r1 )

with the voltage drop ωI1 L1 in the arm AB. The
phasor sum of the E1 and E3 or E2 and E4 will give
the supply voltage.

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Advantages of Anderson Bridge
1. The balance point is easily obtained on the Anderson
bridge as compared to Maxwell’s
inductance capacitance bridge.
2. The bridge uses fixed capacitor because of which accurate
reading is obtained.
3. The bridge measures the accurate capacitances in terms of
inductances.
Disadvantages of Anderson Bridge
1. The circuit has more arms which make it more complex as
compared to Maxwell’s bridge. The equation of the bridge is
also more complex.
2. The bridge has an additional junction which arises the
difficulty in shielding the bridge. Because of the above-
mentioned disadvantages, Maxwell’s inductance capacitance
bridge is used in the circuit 48
Hay Bridge

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 Schering Bridge
 This bridge is used to measure to the capacitance of the capacitor, dissipation factor and
measurement of relative permittivity. Let us consider the circuit of Schering bridge as
shown below:

Here,

 c 1 is the unknown capacitance whose value is to be determined with series

electrical resistance r 1 .
 c2 is a standard capacitor.
 c4 is a variable capacitor.
 r 3 is a pure resistor (i.e. non inductive in nature).

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 And r 4 is a variable non inductive resistor connected in parallel
with variable capacitor c4.
 Now the supply is given to the bridge between the points a and c.
The detector is connected
 between b and d. From the theory of ac bridges we have at balance
condition

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 Wien Bridge
Wien’s bridge is primarily used for determination of an
unknown frequency. However, it can be used for various
other applications including capacitance measurement, in
harmonic distortion analysers and HF oscillators.

Frequency range 100 to 100KHz

Accuracy between 0.1% to 0.5%

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Wien Bridge

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THANK YOU

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