DIFFERENTIAL

CALCULUS
Outcomes for this session
• By the end of this session, you should be able to:
• Develop an intuitive understanding of the limit concept, in the context of approximating the rate of
change or gradient of a function at a point.
• Determine the average gradient of a curve between two points, i.e.: m =
• Determine the gradient of a tangent to a graph, which is also the gradient of the graph at that point.
Introduce the limit principle by shifting the secant until it becomes a tangent.
• Use first principles for (x) = for f(x) = k ; f(x) = ax and
• f(x) = ax2 + b.
• Use the rule for n
• Find equations of tangents to graphs of functions.
• Sketch graphs of cubic polynomial functions using differentiation to determine the co-ordinate of
stationary points. Also, determine the x-intercepts of the graph using the factor theorem and other
techniques.
• Solve practical problems concerning optimization and rates of change, including calculus of motion.
Introduction
• Calculus is a branch of mathematics involving or leading to calculations dealing with
continuously varying functions.
• To a Roman in the days of the empire a “calculus” was a pebble used in counting and
gambling.
• Centuries later “calculare” came to mean “to compute”, “to reckon”, “to figure out”.
To the mathematician, physical scientist, and social scientist of today, calculus is
elementary mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry) enhanced by the limit
process.
• Calculus takes ideas from elementary mathematics and extends them to a more
general situation.
• The table below contains some examples. On the left-hand side, you will find an idea
from elementary mathematics; on the right, this same idea as extended by calculus
Elementary Mathematics vs Calculus
Elementary Mathematics Calculus

Slope of a line y = mx + c Slope of a curve y = f(x)

Tangent line to a circle Tangent line to a more general curve

Average velocity, Average acceleration Instantaneous velocity, Instantaneous

acceleration

Distance moved under a constant velocity. Distance moved under varying velocity.

Area of a region bounded by curves

Area of a region bounded by line segments.

Components of Calculus
Activity 1: Functional Notation
1. If f(x) = 4x2 –3x + 2, determine the value of:
a) f (0) b) f (3) c) f (–1)
d) f (3) – f (–1)

f (2) ÷ f(1)
2. Given that f(x) = 5x2 + x –7, determine the value of:
a) b) f (3 + a) c) f ( 3 + a) – f(3)
𝑓ሺ 3+𝑎ሻ –𝑓(3)
𝑎
d)
3. If f(x) = 6x2 -2x + 1, determine the value of:
a) f (0) b) f (1) c) f (2)
d) f (–1) e) f (–3)

4. If f(p) = 2p2 + 5p – 7, determine the value of:

a) f (1) b) f (2) c) f (–1)
d) f (2) – f (– 1)

5. Given: f(x) = 3x3 + 2x2 – 3x +2, determine the value of:

a) f (1) b) f (2)
1
7
c) Use your results to a) and b) above, to show that f (1) = f (2)
6. If f(x) = –x2 + 3x + 6 , determine the value of:
a) f (2) b) f (a) c) f (2 + a)
d) f (2 + a) – f (2) 𝒇ሺ 𝟐+𝒂ሻ –𝒇(𝟐)
𝒂
e)
Average Gradient
If we are asked to calculate the gradient of the line passing through P(1;1) and Q(3;9) on the
curve y = x2, we proceed as fol ows.
𝑦𝑄−𝑦𝑃 9−1 8
MPQ = 𝑥 −𝑥 = 3−1 = 2 =4
𝑄 𝑃

2
We say that “4 is the average gradient of y = x between P(1;1) and Q(3;9)”
Activity 2: Average Gradient
1. Find the average gradient of the given curve in each of the following cases.
a) y = 2x , between x = 3 and x = 7 b) y = 3x + 4 between x = 2 and x = 5

c) y = x2 , between x = 0 and x = 2 d) y = 2x2 –1 between x = –4 and x = 6

e) y = x3 between x = 3 and x = 4

2. Consider the function f : x → x2 + x. Determine the average gradient

a) between x = 1 and x = 3 b) over the interval [– 3 ; – 2]

c) between the points (–1 ; f(–1))

and (4 ; f(4))
3. If g(x) = 8 –2x – x2, determine the average rate of change of g on the interval
[2 ; 3]

4. Consider the function, defined by f(x) = – x2

𝑓ሺ 1+ℎሻ –𝑓(1) b) Interpret your answer graphically.
ℎ
a) Determine
c) Hence, find the average gradient of f on the interval [1 ;4]
5. The average rate of change of a function f between ( 3 ; 4) and (5 ; a) is 0,5.
Determine the numerical value of a
Gradient of a curve
We already know that the gradient of a straight line which passes through the points

, provided 𝑥2– 𝑥1 ≠ 0.
𝑦2 – 𝑦1
𝑥2–𝑥1
A (x1 ; y1) and B (x2 ; y2) is given by : MAB =

We have also seen that the gradient of a straight line is the same (constant) at all points on the
line.
Gradient of a curve

Notice that at point A the gradient is positive and at point B

the gradient is negative.
In general terms, we define the gradient of a curve at a given
point, say P(x ; y), to be the gradient of the tangent line to the
curve at the point P.
Consider the function: y = x2

9−1 8
3−1 4
In the above figure, the gradient of chord PQ = = = 2

6,25−1
2,5−1
The gradient of chord RQ = = 3,5

4−1 3
2−1 1
The gradient of SQ = = = 3

2,25−1
1,5−1
The gradient of TQ = = 2,5

25
−1
16
5
−1
The gradient of UQ = = 2.25
4

From the above we notice that as the chord PQ comes closer and closer to the point Q(1;1),
the value of its gradient comes closer to 2. We call, 2 the limiting value of the gradient of the
chord PQ and when P coincides with Q, the chord becomes the tangent to the curve.
Activity 3: Gradient of a tangent to a
graph.
1. Plot and sketch the curve f(x) = 4x2 –1 for values of x from [–1; 4].
2. Label the co-ordinates (3; f(3)) and (1; f(1)) as M and N respectively.
3. Join the points M and N to form the chord MN.
4. Determine the gradient of chord MN.
5. Move point M closer and closer to N to determine the gradient of the tangent of the
curve at N. Use the following x -values to assist you
a. T(2,5 ; f(2,5))
b. R(2 ; f(2))
c. S(1,5 ; f(1,5))
d. J (1,25 ; f(1,25))
e. K (1, 01 ; f(1,01))
Intuitive definition of a limit
• Let f be a function which is defined for all of x “near” x = a. If, as x
tends to a from both the left and from the right, f(x) tends to a number,
say b, then we say that the limit of f(x), as x tends to a is b.
• We write: = b OR f(x) b as x a
• We say nothing about f (a). Perhaps f (a) exists and perhaps it doesn’t.
And if it does, perhaps = f (a) and perhaps not!
• When dealing with limits we only care about where we are going, not
whether we get there!
Worked examples: Limits
Activity 4: Limits
In each of the following, determine the limits, if it exists.

a) b) c) , where k is a
constant

d) f)

g) h) i)

j) ; where x > 0
 Differentiation from first principles

• is the same as and is called the differential coefficient or the

derivative. The process of finding the differential coefficient is called
differentiation.

• To summarise: The differential coefficient

• = =

• =
Differentiation from first principles:
Worked examples
1. Determine the derivative of f(x) = 2x , from first principles

Solution:

Begin by determining the value of: f(x + h) = 2(x + h) = 2x + 2h

=
=
=
=
(x) = 2
Differentiation from first principles:
Worked examples
2. Differentiate, y = 3x + 6, from first principles.

Solution:
Let f(x) = 3x + 6

Then; f(x + h) = 3(x + h) + 6

= 3x + 3h + 6

=
=
=
=
(x) = 3
Activity 5: Differentiation from first
principles
Differentiate the following functions from first principles.

a) f(x) = x b) f(x) = 3x

c) f(x) = x + 2 d) f(x) = 4

e) f(x) = 3 – 6x f) f(x) = a + 2px

g) f(x) = 3x2 h) f(x) = x2 + 4

Rules of differentiation
• To calculate the derivative of ,say f(x) = xgoogle, from first principles
may be a daunting task to the ordinary human being. To assist in
accomplishing this and other similar tasks, rules for differentiation
have been developed and accepted.
• Suppose that y = xn , where n is a real number
Then = nx n–1
Acceptable notations
• The following are the commonly used symbols depicting differentiation
of a function.
• Symbols instructing differentiation are : or D;
• Symbols indicating differentiation to the variable x are: or Dx ;
• Differentiation with respect to the variable y are indicated by: or Dy ;
• Differentiation of f(x) with respect to x are indicated by:
• f(x) or or Dx[f(x)] or (x)
• Differentiation of y with respect to x are indicated by:
• y or or Dx[y] or
Commonly used differentiation rules
1. If y = xn ; where n is a real number; then

= nxn–1

2. [f(x) g(x)] = f(x) g(x)

3. = ; where k is a constant.

4. = 0 ; where k is a constant.
Worked examples: Rules of differentiation
1. Use the rules of differentiation to calculate the derivatives of the following functions with respect to x.

a)
y = x3 b) f(x) = x ½
Use rule 1: n = 3 ; n–1 = 2 Use rule 1: n = ½ ; n –1 = –1/2
= 3x3-1 = 3x2 =

c)
y = 3x2 – 6 d) y = 3 – 2x –
y = 3 – 2x – 4x-2
= 6x
= 0 –2 – 4(–2x–3)
= 0 – 2 + 8x–3
=–2+
Worked examples: Rules of differentiation
2. Use the rules of differentiation to differentiate the following
function with respect to m; i.e: y = mx3 + m2x – m3x +

Solution: Dm = x3 + 2mx – 3m2x

3. Calculate (t), using the rules of differentiation, if f(t) =
Solution: f(t) =
=3
(t) = 3(. )
(t) =
Activity 6: Rules of differentiation
1. Calculate, in the following using the rules of differentiation.
a) y = x6 b) y = 99
c) y = 4x3 + 2x2 – 4x + 3 d) y =
2. Differentiate, the following with respect to x, using the rules of differentiation.
a) 3x –6 b) x(x–2)
c) d)

3. Calculate the derivative (differential coefficient) of the following, using the rules of
differentiation.
a) b)
+ –x+4 + – + 0,25
Activity 6: Rules of differentiation
4. Calculate, (x) in the following, using the rules of differentiation.
a) f(x) = 2 – 4x + 6x2 b) f(x) =
5. Calculate, (t) in the following, using the rules of differentiation.
a) f(t) = 6t4 – 4t + 2 b) f(t) = 2tx – 3t2x2 + 4t3x
6. Calculate of the following using, the rules of differentiation.
a) y = sin 30o + – b) y = (x – 2)2
c) y = ax2 + bx + c d) y = x(x2 – 4)
e) y = (x2 – x) f) y =
7. Calculate, using the rules of differentiation, Dx(y) of the following:
a) y= b) y =
c) y= +2 d) y = cos k – sin2 + kx –
Equations of tangents to graphs
• The derivative also results in the gradient of a tangent
to a function. For example, if we differentiate the
equation of a curve, we will get the formula for the
gradient of the curve at a point, and thus the gradient
of a tangent to the curve at that point.
• We can then proceed to calculate the equation of a
tangent to the curve at that point.
Worked examples: Equations of tangents
to graphs
1. Given: y = x2 + 1.
a) Determine the value of y when x = 1 At x = 1:
y = (1)2 + 1 = 2
The point is (1; 2)
b) Determine using the rules of differentiation. y = x2 + 1
= 2x ……using rules

c) Calculate the gradient of y = x2 + 1 at x = 1 The value of the gradient at x = 1 is

given by:
m = 2(1) = 2
d) Hence, determine the equation of the tangent to the The required equation is given by:
curve at x = 1 y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y – 2 = 2(x – 1)
y – 2 = 2x – 2
y = 2x
Worked examples: Equations of tangents
to graphs
2. Determine the equation of the tangent to y = 3x2 – 4x– 6 at (1 ; – 7)

Solution:
Step 1: Determine ; i.e: = 6x – 4
Step 2: Determine the value of the derivative (gradient) at x = 1; i.e:
m = 6(1) – 4
m =2
Step 3: Determine the equation of the tangent, using the gradient at the specified point
and the given point.
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y – (–7) = 2(x – 1)
y + 7 = 2x – 2
y = 2x – 9
Worked examples: Equations of tangents
to graphs
3. Calculate the point on y = 3x2 – 4x – 6 where the gradient is 2.

Solution:
Step 1: Determine ; i.e: = 6x – 4
Step 2: You are given the value of m = 2
i.e. 6x – 4 = 2
6x = 6
x=1
Step 3: Use the x –value obtained in Step 2 above to obtain the corresponding y-value;
i.e: y = 3(1)2 – 4(1) – 6
y =–7
Step 4: Write down the coordinates ; i.e (1; – 7)
Activity 7: Equation of tangent to a curve
at a given point.
1. Determine, the gradient of the curve at the given value of x
Function Value of x
a) f(x) = x2 – 2x x=3
b) g(x) = x3 – 2x2 + x – 1 x=2
c) xy = 3 x=1
d) y = (3x –1)2 x=0
e) y= x=2
f) x=1
y=
2. Determine the equation of the tangents to the curve at the given value of x
a) y = x3 – 2x2 + 4 , at x = 2 b) xy = 4 at x = – 2
c) y = x2 – 2x – 8, at x = 1 d) y = x3 at x = 1
e) y = – 3x2 + 2x + 1 , at x = – 1 f)** y = at x = 2
Activity 7: Equation of tangent to a curve
at a given point.
3. Determine the coordinates of the point P at which the gradient of the curve y = x 2 is 6.

4. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 3x – x 2 which is parallel to the line
y – x – 4 = 0.

5** Q(x ; y) is any point on the curve defined by y = x2 – 5x.

a) Determine the equation of the tangent at Q which is parallel to the straight- line
y = 2x + 1

b) Draw a sketch to illustrate the given information

c) Calculate the co-ordinates of the point Q.

d) Hence, determine the equation of the straight-line PQR

Summary (How to find the equation of a tangent
touching a curve at a point where x = k)
• Determine . This gives you the gradient function.
• Next calculate . This gives you the actual gradient at that point, x = k.
• Find f(k), the y-coordinate of the “touching point”.
• Let the equation of the tangent be y = mx +c. Substitute m (the
gradient); k (the x-value) and f(k) (for the y-value) to calculate c.
• Write down the equation of the tangent.
Sketching of cubic functions
polynomial 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ = 𝑎𝑥3 + 𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑.
Being able to find the derivative of a function enables us to sketch the graph of any cubic

ALWAYS remember that 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒎 (gradient)!

The Turning Points of a cubic polynomial function

(also called ‘Stationary Points’ or ‘Critical Points’)
When we determine 𝑓′ ሺ𝑥ሻ we are dealing with the gradient of 𝑓 which can be increasing,
decreasing or equal to zero.

Look at the following illustration:

m = 0 ∴Turning Point 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ = 𝑎𝑥3 + 𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑

+ - +
+ -
∴ 𝒇decreasing
m =negative
+ - +
- +
∴ 𝒇is increasing
+
∴ 𝒇is increasing
m = positive m = positive
+ - +
+ - +
+ - +
m = 0 ∴Turning Point

Important to remember and apply:

When the gradient of a function is equal to zero [𝑓′ ሺ𝑥ሻ = 0], we can determine the x-
value(s) of the turning point(s) of the function.
Consider the Grade 11 quadratic function,
Gr 11 Gr 12
(without using the derivative) (using the derivative)

Given: Given:
()

We will have a turning point where

Then,
Then,
Maximum / Minimum values

the function values increase or decrease for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. We can only talk about a LOCAL
We cannot say that the cubic function has a CERTAIN maximum or minimum value, since

maximum point or a LOCAL minimum point, which are obtained at the turning points.

To determine whether a turning point is a maximum/minimum point, we have to look at the

gradient of the graph to the left and to the right of the turning point.

 Minimum turning points

𝑓 𝑥ሻ < 0
′ሺ
𝑓 𝑥ሻ > 0
′ሺ
At a minimum turning point the
sign of the gradient changes from
negative to positive.

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ = 0
Maximum / minimum values
 Maximum turning points

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ = 0
At a maximum turning point the
𝑓′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ > 0 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ < 0
sign of the gradient changes from
positive to negative.

Therefore, in the cubic graphs:

Local MAXIMUM
turning point

Local MINIMUM
turning point
Factorization of cubic function
EXAMPLE Method 2: (By inspection)
Factorize 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ = 2𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 − 19𝑥+ 42 = 0 completely.
𝑓ሺ 𝑥ሻ = 2𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 − 19𝑥+ 42 = 0

𝒙× 𝒂𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 ∴ 𝒂 = 𝟐
ሺ 𝑥− 2ሻሺ a𝑥2 + b𝑥+ 𝑐ሻ = 0
Solution:

−𝟐× 𝒄= +𝟒𝟐 ∴ 𝒄= −𝟐𝟏

We need to find the first factor by using the factor theorem (i.e. the remainder = 0)

Test for ሺ𝑥− 1ሻ: 𝑓ሺ1ሻ = 2ሺ1ሻ 3 − 5ሺ1ሻ 2 − 19ሺ1ሻ + 42 = 20 ≠ 0

∴ ሺ𝑥− 1ሻ is not a factor of 𝑓.

∴ ሺ 𝑥− 2ሻሺ 2𝑥2 + b𝑥− 21ሻ = 0 −𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 = −𝟓𝒙𝟐 ∴ 𝒃= −𝟏
Test for ሺ𝑥+ 1ሻ: 𝑓ሺ−1ሻ = 2ሺ−1ሻ 3 − 5ሺ−1ሻ 2 − 19ሺ−1ሻ + 42 = 54 ≠ 0

∴ ሺ 𝑥− 2ሻሺ 2𝑥2 − 𝑥− 21ሻ = 0

∴ ሺ𝑥+ 1ሻ is not a factor of 𝑓.

Test for ሺ𝑥− 2ሻ: 𝑓ሺ2ሻ = 2ሺ2ሻ 3 − 5ሺ2ሻ 2 − 19ሺ2ሻ + 42 = 0

∴ ሺ 𝑥− 2ሻሺ 2𝑥− 7ሻሺ 𝑥+ 3ሻ = 0
∴ ሺ𝑥− 2ሻ is a factor of 𝑓!!
∴ 𝑥= 2 or 𝑥= 2 or 𝑥= −3
7
Now, to find the other factors of 𝑓, two methods will be illustrated below.
Note:

𝑔ሺ 𝑥ሻ = −𝑥3 − 3𝑥 + 2, to add the ‘missing’ 𝑥2– term

when finding the 𝑥–intercepts.
Method 1:1. Remember that in a case like
(Long division)

Therefore, 𝑔ሺ 𝑥ሻ = −𝑥3 − 3𝑥 + 2 should be written as 𝑔ሺ 𝑥ሻ = −𝑥3 + 𝟎𝒙𝟐 − 3𝑥 +

2. 2ሻ
ሺ𝑥−

2. In many cases it will happen that two of the three x–intercepts are the same.
This happens when one of the turning points is ON the x–axis, so that the turning
point and the x–intercept are at the exact same position.
Steps to follow when sketching cubic
functions : y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d ; a 0
1. The shape of the graph

Consider the 𝑎–value………. If 𝑎 > 0 (positive), then

If 𝑎 < 0 (negative), then

2. The turning points of the graph

To determine the x–coordinates: To determine the y–coordinates:

Let 𝑓′ ሺ𝑥ሻ = 0 Calculate 𝑓() and 𝑓()

3𝑎𝑥2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

∴ 𝑥=  or 𝑥= 

Therefore, the turning points are ൫  ; 𝑓ሺሻ൯ and ൫  ; 𝑓ሺሻ൯ .

3. The x–intercepts of the graph

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ = 0 and solve for x with the aid of the Factor theorem and long
division or inspection (as explained above).

4. The y–intercept of the graph

Let 𝑥 = 0 to calculate y.
Worked example: Sketching of a cubic
function
• Sketch the graph of . Clearly indicate the
intercepts with the axes as well as the
turning points.
Worked example: Sketching of a cubic
function
Solution:

1. Shape …… 𝑎 < 0 ∴

2. For the turning points, let 𝑔′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ = 0 𝑔ሺ 1ሻ = −ሺ 1ሻ 3 + 3ሺ 1ሻ + 18

−3𝑥2 + 3 = 0 = 20

ሺ ÷ −3ሻ : 𝑥2 − 1 = 0

ሺ 𝑥− 1ሻሺ 𝑥+ 1ሻ = 0 𝑔ሺ −1ሻ = −ሺ −1ሻ 3 + 3ሺ −1ሻ + 18

∴ 𝑥= 1 or 𝑥= −1 = 16

∴ The turning points are ሺ 1 ; 20ሻ and ሺ −1 ; 16ሻ

Worked example: Sketching of a cubic
function Find the other factors by inspection:

−𝑥3 + 3𝑥+ 18 = −𝑥3 + 𝟎𝒙𝟐 + 3𝑥+ 18 = 0

1. The x–intercepts, let 𝑦= 0 𝒙× 𝒂𝒙𝟐 = −𝟏𝒙𝟑 ∴ 𝒂 = −𝟏

ሺ𝑥− 3ሻሺa𝑥2 + b𝑥+ 𝑐ሻ = 0
∴ −𝑥3 + 3𝑥+ 18 = 0 −𝟑× 𝒄= +𝟏𝟖 ∴ 𝒄= −𝟔

Use the factor theorem to test for the first factor:

ሺ𝑥− 1ሻ: 𝑔ሺ1ሻ = −ሺ1ሻ 3 + 3ሺ1ሻ + 18 = 20 ≠ 0 ∴ ሺ𝑥− 3ሻሺ−1𝑥2 + b𝑥− 6ሻ = 0 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎𝒙𝟐 ∴ 𝒃 = −𝟑
ሺ𝑥+ 1ሻ: 𝑔ሺ−1ሻ = −ሺ−1ሻ 3 + 3ሺ−1ሻ + 18 = 16 ≠ 0
Not a factor.

ሺ𝑥− 2ሻ: 𝑔ሺ2ሻ = −ሺ2ሻ 3 + 3ሺ2ሻ + 18 = 16 ≠ 0

Not a factor.

ሺ𝑥+ 2ሻ: 𝑔ሺ−2ሻ = −ሺ−2ሻ 3 + 3ሺ−2ሻ + 18 = 20 ≠ 0 ∴ ሺ𝑥− 3ሻሺ−1𝑥2 − 3𝑥− 6ሻ = 0

Not a factor.

ሺ𝑥− 3ሻ: 𝑔ሺ3ሻ = −ሺ3ሻ 3 + 3ሺ3ሻ + 18 = 0

Not a factor.

∴ ሺ𝑥− 3ሻሺ𝑥2 + 3𝑥+ 6ሻ = 0

∴ ሺ𝑥− 3ሻ is a factor of 𝑔ሺ𝑥ሻ.
∴ 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥=
−ሺ3ሻ±ඥ ሺ3ሻ 2−4ሺ1ሻሺ6ሻ
Find the other factors by inspection: 2ሺ1ሻ

−𝑥3 + 3𝑥+ 18 = −𝑥3 + 𝟎𝒙𝟐 + 3𝑥+ 18 = 0 𝑥=

−3±ξ−15
2

No Real solution! (It means that that 𝑔ሺ𝑥ሻ has only ONE real x–
ሺ𝑥− 3ሻሺa𝑥2 + b𝑥+ 𝑐ሻ = 0
at 𝑥 = 3)
intercept,

∴ ሺ𝑥− 3ሻሺ−1𝑥2 + b𝑥− 6ሻ = 0

Worked example: Sketching of a cubic
function
1. The y–intercepts, let 𝑥 = 0

∴ 𝑔ሺ𝑥ሻ = 𝑦 = 18 

Now we can sketch the graph of 𝑔. y

(1 ; 20)

g

 18


(-1 ; 16)

3 x

0
Some important terms….
It is important to understand the notation used in this section of Mathematics. To sketch a cubic
function can be asked without giving the actual function. Important information regarding the
function will be given which will have to be interpreted carefully before the graph can be drawn.
Worked example
EXAMPLE

The following properties of the cubic function 𝑓 is given. Draw a rough sketch to represent

Now, a rough sketch of 𝑓 can be drawn:

𝑓.

𝑓
 ‘Zeros’ = x–intercepts. In this case only one, at 𝑥 = −5
 Zeros at –5

 Can also be given as 𝑓ሺ−5ሻ = 0 or ሺ−5 ; 0ሻ (-4 ; 8)

 Stationary points at x = – 4 and x = 0

 Can also be given as 𝑓′ ሺ−4ሻ = 0 and 𝑓′ ሺ0ሻ = 0

 ‘Stationary points’ = Turning points

(0 ; 1)
 tell us that for the function 𝑓……
 f(–4) = 8 and f(0) = 1

𝑦= 8 if 𝑥 = −4 and
𝑦= 1 if 𝑥 = 0 -5 0
 Can also be given as ሺ−4 ; 8ሻ and ሺ0 ; 1ሻ

 Increasing on the interval (–∞ ; –4) and (0 ; ∞)

 Can also be written as 𝑓′ ሺ𝑥ሻ > 0 for these intervals

 ’increasing’ means that the gradient will be positive for these intervals

 Decreasing on the interval (–4 ; 0)

Can also be written as 𝑓′ ሺ𝑥ሻ < 0 for the interval

 ’decreasing’ means that the gradient will be negative for the interval given
Activity: Sketching of cubic functions
1. Given:

• Calculate the coordinates of the turning points of .

• Calculate the coordinates of the x–intercepts.
• Sketch the graph of , clearly indicating the intercepts with the axes and the turning points.
• For which values of x will ?
• Determine the equation of a tangent to the curve at the point .
2. Given:

• Calculate and hence determine the x–intercepts of .

• Determine the turning points of .
• Sketch the graph of . Clearly show the intercepts with the axes and also the stationary points.
• Write down the value of x for which .
Activity: Sketching of cubic functions
The figure below shows the graph of 𝑓, where 𝑓ሺ 𝑥ሻ = −ሺ 𝑥+ 3ሻ 2ሺ 𝑥− 6ሻ .

of 𝑓. 𝑦
D and B are x– and y–intercepts respectively. A and C are the stationary points

C
B

𝑥
A O D

3.1 Determine:

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ
3.1.1 the lengths of OB and OD.
3.1.2
3.1.3 the coordinates of A and C.

3.2 Is point C a local maximum or minimum stationary point? Explain your

answer.

3.3 Write down the domain and range of f.

3.4 Write down the values of x for which 𝑓 is increasing.

Activity: Sketching of cubic functions
Given 𝑝ሺ 𝑥ሻ = 𝑎𝑥3 + 𝑏𝑥+ 𝑐, which has the following properties:

𝑝′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ > 0 if 𝑥 < −3 or 𝑥 > 3

𝑝′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ < 0 if − 3 < 𝑥 < 3


𝑝′ ሺ −3ሻ = 𝑝′ ሺ 3ሻ = 0


𝑝ሺ 0ሻ > 0



Draw a rough sketch of 𝑝.

5. The following information about a cubic polynomial, 𝑦 = 𝑓ሺ 𝑥ሻ , is given:

𝑓ሺ −1ሻ = 0
𝑓ሺ 2ሻ = 0


𝑓ሺ 1ሻ = −4


𝑓ሺ 0ሻ = −2


𝑓′ ሺ −1ሻ = 𝑓′ ሺ 1ሻ = 0


if 𝑓ሺ 𝑥ሻ < −1 then 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ > 0



if 𝑓ሺ 𝑥ሻ > 1 then 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑥ሻ > 0




Draw a neat sketch graph of 𝑓.

Application of calculus: Example
A farmer wants to fence off a rectangular field next to a river. He uses the river as one of the
borders of the field, as shown in the diagram below. He has 1800 meters of fencing
available.

RIVER

𝑥 𝑥

1.1 Determine the measurements of the field to ensure a maximum area.

1.2 What is this maximum area?
Application of calculus: Example
Solution:

In this problem we will be dealing with TWO concepts:

 the area of the field (asked), and
 the perimeter of the field (given: 1800 m of fencing available)

As always, we have to start with the ‘given’.

The perimeter of the field: 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1800

Make y the subject of the formula: 𝑦 = 1800 − 2𝑥

(we need to do this so that the sides of the field is in one variable only, i.e. x)

The area of the field: 𝐴= 𝑙 × 𝑏

= ሺ 1800 − 2𝑥ሻ ሺ 𝑥ሻ

= 1800𝑥 − 2𝑥2

The area of the field is represented by the function 𝐴ሺ 𝑥ሻ = 1800 − 2𝑥2.

The graph of this function has the following shape: We will obtain the
maximum here at the
turning point

′ሺ
𝐴 𝑥ሻ = 0
1800 − 4𝑥 = 0
For a maximum area, solve:

1800 = 4𝑥
∴ 450 = 𝑥

𝑙 = 1800 − 2𝑥 𝑏 = 𝑥 = 450 m
= 1800 − 2ሺ 450ሻ
1.1 Measurements of the field: and

= 900 m

𝐴= 𝑙 × 𝑏 𝐴ሺ 𝑥ሻ = 1800 − 2𝑥2
= 900 × 450 𝐴ሺ 450ሻ = 1800 −
1.2 The maximum area: or

2ሺ 450ሻ 2
= 405 000 m2 = 405 000 m2
Activity: Application of calculus
• A 340 ml can of cool drink with height and radius is shown below.

1.1 Determine the height of the can in terms of the radius .

1.2 Show that the surface area of the can be written as .

1.3 Determine the radius of the can in , if the surface area of the can
has to be as small as possible.
Activity: Application of calculus
128 cm3 and the base of the box has a width of 𝑥 cm and a length of ሺ 4𝑥ሻ cm.
An open rectangular box is made of a very thin sheet of metal. The volume is

2.1 Determine an expression for the height of the box in terms of 𝑥.

ቀ 4𝑥2 + ቁ cm2.
2.2 Show that the total surface area of the box can be written as
320
𝑥
2.3 Calculate the height of the box for which the surface area is a minimum.
Activity: Application of calculus
that 𝑄𝐵 = 𝐵𝑅= 𝐷𝑆= 𝐷𝑃= 𝑘 mm.
ABCD is a square with sides 20 mm each. PQRS is a rectangle that fits inside the square such

Prove that the area of 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆= −2𝑘ሺ 𝑘 − 20ሻ = 40𝑘 − 2𝑘2.

Determine the value of 𝑘 for which the area of 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆is a maximum.
3.1
3.2
Activity: Application of calculus
that 𝑄𝐵 = 𝐵𝑅= 𝐷𝑆= 𝐷𝑃= 𝑘 mm.
ABCD is a square with sides 20 mm each. PQRS is a rectangle that fits inside the square such

Prove that the area of 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆= −2𝑘ሺ 𝑘 − 20ሻ = 40𝑘 − 2𝑘2.

Determine the value of 𝑘 for which the area of 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆is a maximum.
3.1
3.2
Calculus of motion
We usually deal with the rate of change with respect to time.

Remember the following:

If an equation 𝑠ሺ 𝑡ሻ is given with distance (s) and time (t), then

𝑠ሺ 𝑡ሻ represents distance at time t

𝑠′ ሺ 𝑡ሻ represents speed (velocity) at time t


𝑠′′ ሺ 𝑡ሻ represents acceleration at time t



Application of calculus: Example 2
A body moves along a straight line according to the law: s(t) = 0,5t3 – 2t, where s
is measured in metres and t -time is measured in seconds.
Calculate:
a) the speed after two seconds v = = 1,5t2 – t

s’(t) =1,5t2 – t
s’(2) = 1,5 (2)2 – 2
= 4ms-1

a) the acceleration after two seconds a=

= 2(1,5)t
= 3t
After two seconds, a = 3(2) = 6 ms-2
Activity: Calculus of motion
1. A car speeds along a 1 km track in 25 seconds. Its distance (in
meters) from the start after seconds is given by .
a) Write down an expression for the speed of the car after seconds.
b) Determine the speed of the car when it crosses the finish line.
c) Write down an expression for the acceleration of the car after
seconds.
d) Hence, calculate the acceleration of the car after 5 seconds.
e) Calculate the speed of the car when it is 250 meters down the track .
Activity: Calculus of motion
A particle moves according to the function 𝐻ሺ 𝑥ሻ = −2𝑡2 + 70𝑡, where 𝑡 is time in seconds
and 𝐻 is height in meters above the ground.

2.1 Calculate the height of the particle after 5 seconds.

2.2 How much time did it take for the particle to strike the ground again?
2.3 What was die maximum height that the particle reached?
2.4 What was the initial speed (velocity) of the particle?

3. A stone is thrown vertically upwards. Its height (in metres) above the ground at time t
(in seconds) is given by: h(t )   2t 2  12t  32 .

3.1 Determine the initial height of the stone above the ground.
3.2 Determine the time taken to reach the maximum height.
3.3 How fast was the stone travelling when it hit the ground?
3.4 Determine the acceleration of the stone.
Activity: Calculus of motion
4. A farmer wanted to determine the amount of water he used every week
during the drought. He measured the amount of water drawn from a Jojo
water tank used on the farm. He determined that the volume of water, in liters,
weeks after he started measuring was:

4.1 After how many weeks was the volume at a maximum?

4.2After how many weeks will the tank be empty?
4.3Determine the rate at which the volume changes with respect to the time at .