Introduction to GPS

Content
• GPS System Description
– Space Segment
– Control Segment
– User Segment and Ground Segment
• GPS Signals
– Observations, Observation Model
• Pseudorange, Carrier Phase
• GPS Positioning
– Navigation/Point Positioning
– Relative Positioning/Differencing
• GPS Denial of Accuracy
• GPS Error Sources
• GPS Future Developments
GPS System Description
• GPS (Global Positioning System)
– also called NAVSTAR (NAVigation System, Timing
And Ranging)

• The GPS consists of 3 main segments:

– Space Segment: the constellation of satellites
– Control Segment: operation and monitoring of the GPS
System
– User Segment: all GPS receivers and processing software's

We might add a 4th segment:

• Ground Segment:
– permanent civilian networks of reference sites, associated
analyses and archives (e.g. IGS)
 GPS Space Segment
• The space segments nominally consists of 24 satellites, currently:
– 28 (24+4 spares) active GPS satellites (26 Block II, 2 Block IIR)
– Constellation design: at least 4 satellites in view from any location at
any time to allow navigation (solution for 3 position + 1 station clock
unknowns)
– “Right Time, Right Place, Any Time, Any Place”
• GPS Orbit characteristics:
– Semi-Major Axis (Radius): 26,600 km
– Orbital Period : 11 h 58 min
– Orbit Inclination: 55 degrees
– Number of Orbit Planes: 6 (60 degree spacing)
– Number of Satellites: 24 (4 spares)
– Approximate Mass: 815 kg, 7.5 year
lifespan
– Data Rate (message): 50 bit/sec
– PRN (Pseudo-Random Noise) Codes: Satellite-dependent
Codes
– Transmit, Frequencies L-Band L1: 1575.42 MHtz
L2: 1227.60 MHtz
GPS Space Segment
• Speed of satellites relative to the Earth center approximately 4
km/s, relative to the user up to 2.8 km/s.
– GPS satellites repeat their ground tracks
after: 1 sidereal day = 23 h 56 min = 2
orbital periods. The same geometry is
reached 4 minutes earlier every day.
– 2:1 commensurability of GPS revolution
period with Earth rotation leads to
resonance effects with gravity field (many
maneuvers necessary).
– Satellites equally distributed in each of the
six orbit planes.
 GPS Space Segment
Currently: 26 Block II, 2 Block IIR, no Block I satellites are active
Picture of a Block II Satellite
GPS Control Segment
US Air Force and NIMA Control and Tracking Stations

Hermitage
MCS Colorado Springs

Bahrain

Hawaii Kwajalein
Ascension
Ouito
Diego Garcia
Smithfield

Buenos Aires

US Airforce Tracking Sites

US Airforce Upload Sites See also map at <http://164.214.2.59/GandG/sathtml>
US NIMA Tracking MCS – Master Control Station
Sites
GPS User and Ground
Segment
• User Segment:
– All GPS receivers on land, on sea, in the air and in space.
– Extremely broad user community with applications of the
GPS for:
• Navigation
• Surveying
• Geodynamics and geophysics
• Remote sensing (troposphere and ionosphere)
• Time and frequency transfer
• etc.
Ground Segment:
– IGS global network; IGS products reference frame for
coordinates, orbits, and Earth rotation.
– Regional permanent networks (Europe, Japan, US, ...):
densification of the reference frame.
 GPS Signals

• Signals driven by an atomic clock

– Fundamental Frequency at 10.23 MHz
• Two carrier signals (sine waves):
– L 1 : f=1575.43 MHz, ( =19 cm ), generated by 10.23 MHz
x 154
– L 2 : f=1227.60 MHz, (  =24 cm), generated by 10.23 MHz
x 120
• Bits encoded on carrier by phase modulation:
– C/A-code (Clear Access / Coarse Acquisition): 1.023 MHz ( =300
m ), 10.23/10
– P-code (Protected / Precise): 10.23 MHz ( = 30 m ) at
fundamental frequency
– Navigation Message: (system time, “Broadcast” orbits, satellite
clock corrections, almanacs, ionospheric information, etc.), 50
Observations and Models

– Pseudorange measurements by delay correlation time

difference (Tr-Ts) of the received satellite and receiver replica
codes
Prs = c (Tr-Ts) = rs + c (tr - ts)
– Phase differences (r-  s) (initially ambiguous), analogously by
comparing the received satellite and receiver generated phases:
Lrs =  (r-  s) = rs + c (tr - ts) + brs

Where: c is the speed of light; rs is the receiver to satellite distance;  is the
wavelength; tr and ts are the receiver and satellite clock errors; b rs is the
initial (non-integer) phase bias.
 Navigation/Point
Positioning
• Typical noise on pseudorange or phase measurements is < 1% of the
wavelengths: for C/A pseudorange: < 3m; for P-code: < .3 m and for
phase measurements: < 2 mm
• Basic Observation model (equation):
rs + c (tr - ts) + brs + …
– Where ‘…’ indicates additional error sources
– for pseudoranges (when brs =0) contains 4 unknowns (xr, yr, zr,
tr) :
3 for the receiver position and one for receiver clock error, and
rs =((xs-xr)2 +(ys-yr)2 +(zs-zr)2)
– satellite positions and clock errors (xs, ys, zs, ts) are obtained from
the navigation (broadcast) message
– at least four (typically 6) simultaneous pseudorange observations
are needed for receiver position and clock determination (at m,
nsec level)
– for phases an initial phase bias unknown brs per each observed
(continuous) satellite arc must be introduced. After that (subject
to an initial phase/clock datum), phase navigation is completely
analogous to pseudorange navigation.
Relative Positioning by
Differencing
• Single differencing : by subtracting simultaneous phase
observations from station A and B to the same satellite S
[ As + c (tA - ts) + bAs + …]–[ Bs + c (tB - ts) + bBs + … ]=
ABs + c tAB + bABs
– nearly eliminates satellite clocks, receivers must be
synchronized within 1 msec
– reduces some common errors, in particular for short
baselines A-B, such as errors due to orbit, ionosphere or
troposphere
– solutions for the station clock difference tAB still
required
• Double differencing: by subtracting two single differences
(between stations A,B) to the satellites i and j.
ABij + NABij
– where ABij = ABi - ABj and the double difference
phase ambiguity NABij = bABi- bABj is an integer! (all
phase instrumental biases cancel out)
– station clock differences are nearly eliminated! Only 3 relative position
unknowns needed after the initial integer ambiguities are resolved
Basic Concepts
GPS Positioning: Simplified Concepts, Basic Error Sources
GPS
Ts  = observed time delay from SV signal
obs A
transmit to station A signal reception
TR = Time signal received at A
Ts = Time signal trasmitted from SV
 obs A
 geo = delay due to geometry, distance

 Clk A = apparent delay due to user clock offset

 sv
= apparent delay due to satellite clock offset

 iono = dispersive delay due to ionosphere

A  atm(wet/dry) = delay due to troposphere

m TR  mult = delay due to multipath (m), signal reflection

 obs A = = (TR - Ts ) = geo+ Clk A - sv + iono + atm(wet/dry) + mult +...

Differencing Techniques
GPS Single Differencing: reduces common errors, SV Clock
nearly cancels, appropriate for short baselines
t s
A = observed distance, including errors
As = correct ‘true’ distance SV to station
B ((xS-xA)2+(yS-yA)2+(zS-zA)2)1/2
tA or B = station clock error
A ts = satellite clock error
tAB= difference in station clock offsets
AB =A- B c = speed of light
b = initial phase bias SV to station
t
B = baseline
 B
A t A

AB = A- B = [As + c (tA - ts) + bAs +…]-[ Bs + c (tB - ts) + bBs +…]
= ABs + c tAB + bABs
Differencing Techniques
GPSi
GPSj

 Bj
B i

 Ai  Bj
Double Differencing: station clock offsets
nearly cancel, only 3 relative positions
needed, (x,y,z)
B

A

ABij = ABi - ABj

bABij = bABi - bABj = NABij -->> an integer phase ambiguity
GPS Denial of Accuracy
• Selective Availability (SA): intentional degradation of accuracy
– Increased navigation errors (based on broadcast orbits/clocks)
from several meters to more than 30 m !
– Epsilon: navigation message contained intentional orbit
errors; apparently not used; no effect when using IGS precise
orbits.
– Dither: satellite clock was dithered; same effect as a satellite
clock error; eliminated (mitigated) when using relative
(differential) positioning; no effect when using IGS precise
clocks (but only at the epochs of the IGS precise clock)
– cm phase navigation/positioning with IGS precise orbits and
clocks!
– Switched off permanently on May 2, 2000 WK 1060, Day of
Year 123) at 04:00UT as directed by the President of the US.
• Anti-Spoofing (AS): denial of precise P-code
– Encryption of the more precise P-code on L1 and L2 (a key
available only to authorized users)
– Modern GPS receivers can still perform precise code
(< .3m)and phase (<2mm) measurements on L1 and L2
– Somewhat increased noise level for code measurements and
for L2 carrier phase measurements even for modern GPS
 GPS Error Sources
• Satellite orbits
– IGS Final or Rapid orbits (available within 24h) virtually eliminate
orbit errors (<.1m) for post-processing at any epoch
– In real-time the broadcast orbit errors (~3m) can be reduced (< 1m)
by DGPS (Differential GPS) or by using IGS Predicted or the Ultra-
Rapid orbits
• Satellite clocks
– for relative positioning double differencing nearly eliminates satellite
clock errors
– IGS Final or Rapid satellite clocks (available within 24h) virtually
eliminate satellite clock errors (<.1m) for post-processing (currently
only at the 5 min epoch sampling)
– in real time the broadcast clock errors (SA) reduced by DGPS
• Tropospheric refraction
– virtually eliminated by estimating corrections to a model (also used
in GPS meteorology); or at IGS stations, by using the IGS
tropospheric delay products!
– nearly eliminated (< .1m) by using a model with measured met data
 GPS Error Sources
• Ionospheric refraction
– for dual frequency receivers, the use of (P1, P2) or (L1, L2) virtually
eliminates ionospheric refraction (also used for ionospheric delay
determination/monitoring, e.g. by IGS, the IGS ionospheric delay
products )
– For single frequency receivers, the use of IGS ionospheric delay products
(available within a few weeks) significantly reduces ionospheric
refraction errors
– For single frequency receivers, ionospheric refraction errors reduced in
differential (relative) positioning (e.g. DGPS) for baselines up to 100 km
• Antenna phase center variations
– virtually eliminated in relative positioning over moderate baseline
lengths (<500km) when using the same antenna types
– antenna phase center corrections (e.g. IGS antenna phase center tables)
must be used for different antenna types and precise positioning (<.1m)
• Multipath
– difficult to mitigate, errors can reach a few cm for the phase and up to a
meter or more for pseudorange positioning/navigation
– reduced by improved site selections and hardware (receiver/antenna)
designs
Future Developments
• GPS Modernization
– C/A on L2, improve codeless, cross correclation receiver processing
– 3rd frequency, L5 at 1176.45 MHz with full access to frequencies
available for civilian use
– improved satellite designs, longer life, Hydrogen Maser frequency
standards
– Spectrum protection for GPS signals remains an issue, conflict with
satellite communications interests
– Need space-to-space allocation for GPS use

• Full and guaranteed access (in peace time) to civilian use

– guaranteed by the Presidential Decision Directive (PDD), March 1996:
• SA switched off on May 2, 2000, GPS WK 1060, 123 doy at 04:00UT
• no SA should allow cm interpolation of the IGS clock solutions and
instantaneous cm positioning/navigation at any instant at any time
with no base (DGPS) stations required
• with no SA most DGPS’ should become obsolete and redundant
 References
Websites
• GPS Links from IGS: http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/overview/links.html
• U.S. Coast Guard Navigation Information Center: http://www.navcen.uscg.mil
• U.S. Department of Transportation: http://www.dot.gov
• NIMA Satellite Geodesy: http://164.214.2.59/GandG/sathtml/
• UNAVCO: http://www.unavco.ucar.edu/
• GPS Environmental & Earth Science Information System: http://genesis/html/index.shtml
• GPS Joint Program Office http://gps.laafb.af.mil/
Books:
• Institute of Navigation, Global Positioning System, Vol. I, Papers published in
NAVIGATION, ISBN: 0-936406-00-3, 1980 (Spilker, Van Dierendonck, etc.
• American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), Global Positioning System:
Theory and Applications, Volume I & II, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics ISBN or
Order Number: 1-56347-107-8 , 1996
• Kleusberg, A. P. Teunissen,ed. GPS for Geodesy, Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences,
Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-60785-4, 1996
• Springer, T.A., “Modeling and Validating Orbits and Clocks Using the Global Positioning
System”, Doctoral Thesis, University of Bern, Switzerland, November 1999