Introduction to

networking

By
Engr. Andrew Agbor (Ph.D. fellow)
 Components of a Network
Networking is a very graphically oriented subject, and icons are
commonly used to represent networking devices. There are many of
common networking devices that are commonly used as shown.
 Components of a Network
On the left side of the figure are shown some common devices which often originate
messages that comprise our communication. These include various types of computers (a
PC and laptop icon are shown), servers, and IP phones. On local area networks these
devices are typically connected by LAN media (wired or wireless). The right side of the
figure shows some of the most common intermediate devices, used to direct and manage
messages across the network, as well as other common networking symbols. Generic
symbols are shown for:

 Switch - the most common device for interconnecting local area networks.

 Firewall -provides security to networks.

 Router - helps direct messages as they travel across a network.

 Wireless Router - a specific type of router often found in home networks.

 Cloud - used to summarize a group of networking devices, the details of which may be
unimportant to the discussion at hand.

 Serial Link - one form of WAN interconnection, represented by the lightning bolt-shaped
 Components of a Network
For a network to function, the devices must be interconnected. Network

connections can be wired or wireless. In wired connections, the medium is

either copper, which carries electrical signals, or optical fiber, which carries

light signals. In wireless connections, the medium is the Earth's atmosphere,

or space, and the signals are microwaves. Devices interconnected by

medium to provide services must be governed by rules, or protocols. The

Protocols are the rules that the networked devices use to communicate with

each other. The industry standard in networking today is a set of protocols

called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

 Components of a Network
1.2.2 Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or
full-duplex. As demonstrated in the figure below
 Components of a Network
1.Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a

one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other

can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex

devices.

2. Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each device can both transmit and

receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can

only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where

there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time; the

entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

3. In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

In full-duplex mode, signal going in one direction with signals moving in the

opposite direction.
 Components of a Network
NB:

This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two
physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other
for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals
traveling in both directions. One common example of full-duplex
communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time.
 Network Criteria
Every network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.

A) Performance

Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and

response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between
an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number
of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two
criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we
may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.
 Network Criteria

B) Reliability

In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the

frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the

network's robustness in a catastrophe.

C) Security

Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,

protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies

and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

 1.3 Categories of
Networks
Today networks can be classified based on different factors: connection
type, topology, and distance
1.3.1 Classifications Based on Type of Connection

A network is made up of two or more devices connected through links. A

link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to

another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a

line drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devices

must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time.

There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and

multipoint.
 Categories of Networks
Point-to-Point:

A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.

The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.

The short messages called packets in certain contexts, may have to first visit

one or more intermediate machines. Often multiple routes, of different

lengths, are possible, so finding good ones is important in point-to point

networks. When you change television channels by infrared remote control,

you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control

and the television's control system. Point to-point transmission with exactly

one sender and exactly one receiver is sometimes called unicasting.

 Categories of Networks
Multipoint network (also called broadcast): the communication

channel is shared by all the machines on the network; packets sent by

any machine are received by all the others An address field within each

packet specifies the intended recipient. Upon receiving a packet, a

machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for the

receiving machine, that machine processes the packet; if the packet is

intended for some other machine, it is just ignored.

1.3.2 Classifications Based on
Topology
The term topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out

physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form

a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of

the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes)

to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, bus, star,

and ring.
Classifications Based on Topology

A) Mesh:

In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to

every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries
traffic only between the two devices it connects. To find the number of
physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first
consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1
must be connected to n - 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1
nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need
n(n - 1) physical links. However, if each physical link allows
communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the
number of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh
topology, we need n(n - 1)/2.
Classifications Based on
Topology

Advantages
i) the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can
carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that
can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
ii) a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does
not incapacitate the entire system
iii) there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every
message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from
gaining access to messages.
Classifications Based on Topology
I.) because every device must be connected to every other device,
installation and reconnection are difficult.
ii) the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space
(in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate
iii) the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can
be prohibitively expensive.
B) Bus Topology
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line
is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
 Classifications Based on Topology
Advantages

of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid

along the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of
various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star
topologies.

Disadvantages

include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to

be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new
devices. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This
degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices
connected to a given length of cable. Adding new devices may therefore
require modification or replacement of the backbone.
Classifications Based on Topology
C) Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to
a central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly
linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not
allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange:
If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device (see
Figure 1.11) .